Modelling moisture-related mechanical properties of wood Part II: Computation of properties of a model of wood and comparison with experimental data

Starting with simple concepts of the molecular structure and models of the stiffness and swelling behaviour of lignin, hemi-cellulose and cellulose and building up through the various levels of organisation in the wood cell wall a model has been constructed that simultaneously predicts the variation with moisture content change of both the longitudinal Young's modulus and longitudinal shrinkage of wood. The model closely predicts both longitudinal shrinkage and Young's modulus as they vary with the moisture content of the wood. The model also takes into account structural variations in the form of changes in cell wall layer thicknesses and mean cellulose microfibril orientation.     

Modelling longitudinal elastic an shrinkage properties of wood

Summary A model was developed for estimating elastic and shrinkage properties of a softwood cell wall from the properties of its polymeric constituents: cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. The theory of composite materials was used. Based on a literature survey, models of latewood, earlywood and compressionwood of a softwood cell wall structure were made. The model takes into account the helical winding of the microfibrils in the cell wall and it estimates the behaviour of a balanced laminated double-cell wall in which rotation is restrained by adjacent cells. The calculated elastic and shrinkage properties were compared with earlier test results and good agreement was found.     

Movement of fluids in wood — Part I: Flow of fluids in wood

Summary The flow of fluids and diffusion through wood follow different laws and vary in effectiveness through different structures. For this reason this review has been divided into two parts, Part I covers flow of fluids and part II diffusion. The conclusions drawn here involve Part I only.Voids in wood vary in size from vessels in hardwoods, which are visible under very low magnification, down to spaces of molecular size. Voids in dry unbulked cell walls of wood cannot exceed a few per cent of the Volume. Reported findings of much higher values are in error due to the fact that the contained moisture and any bulking material in the cell walls was not taken into account. Only polar fluids can penetrate the cell walls where they are held in solid solution by an attractive force greater than that of wood for itself. Flow of this bound liquid through the cell walls is negligible compared to that through the permanent openings in the pit membranes. This fine pit structure controls the rate of flow of fluids through softwoods, the pressure drop occurring in the fiber cavities being negligible compared to that occurring across the pit membrane openings. In the case of hardwoods the pits share this resistance to flow with fine openings in tyloses in the vessels. Flow is 100 to 200 times greater in the fiber direction than transversely for softwoods under the same pressure because about that many more pits have to be traversed per unit distance. From various flow considerations the average effective pit membrane openings range from 10 to 200 millimicrons in radius, the smaller values being for impervious heartwood and the larger values for pervious sapwood.The rate of flow of fluids through wood is highly affected by the presence of air or other gases. Only when great precautions are taken to remove dissolved air can reproducable constant rates of flow be obtained. Considerably more pressure has to be applied to force a gas-liquid interface through wood than to cause flow of the liquid alone. The pressure to cause the first bubble of gas to appear through a liquid saturated specimen of wood as a result of displacement of the liquid can, together with the surface tension, be used to calculate the largest effective radius of all of the paths in parallel, where the effective radius is the smallest radius of each path in series. The maximum radius of the fiber cavities, the maximum effective radius of the pit membrane openings for passage through one pit in each path, and the approximate average maximum effective radius of the pit membrane openings for passage through a large number of pits in series can be calculated from displacement measurements on softwood cross sections varying from the thinnest possible sections to sections many fiber lengths thick. These values for a white cedar sapwood are 30 microns, 2 microns and 0.1 to 0.2 microns respectively. The latter values are 3 to 6 times the most probable pit membrane opening sizes obtained from measurements of the reduction in flow of humidified air through wood as a result of condensation occurring in the communicating openings. The combined data show that the most effective pit membrane openings may range from 0.01 to 2.0 m or more in radius. Considerable resistance to impregnation of wood is afforded by the small openings in resistant species due to the fact that the surface tension effect in the fine communicating openings has to be overcome. This is true even for the impregnation of dry wood, as vapor may condense ahead of the advance of liquid. In order to avoid these surface tension effects, gas phase treatments should be tried.Movement of free water in the drying of water saturated wood is restriced to [1] movement created by an internal hydrostatic head resulting from heating above the boiling point of water or to [2] drying of completely watersaturated wood under conditions such that the drying tension set up in the largest pit membrane opening of a fiber exceeds the proportional limit in compression perpendicular to the grain of the fiber. In this case the fiber collapses as water flows under tension from the fiber cavity. When the resistance to collapse exceeds the drying tension evaporation of water will occur from the largest pit opening and then recede into the fiber cavity. The wet line of the specimen will hence move inwards without internal loss of moisture above the wetline. A normal diffusion controlled drying gradient extends inwards to the fiber saturation point followed by an abrupt increase in moisture content to the original value.Usually the fiber cavities of wood contain some air in bubbles larger than the largest pit membrane openings. In this case free water moves under the drying tension without causing collapse due to the relief of internal stress because of the expansion of the air. Under these conditions the moisture distribution above the fiber-saturation point is a smooth continuation of the portion below the fiber-saturation point. This liquid movement of free water is not a diffusion, but it is controlled by the diffusion below the fiber-saturation point.It is thus evident that the movement of free liquids in wood is quite complex and affected by a number of different factors, the most important of which are to be considered in this paper.

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Zusammenfassung Die Strömung von Flüssigkeiten durch das Holz einerseits und die Diffusion andererseits folgen jeweils verschiedenen Gesetzen und unterscheiden sich in ihrer Auswirkung je nach dem betroffenen Teil des Holzgefüges. Die vorliegende Arbeit wurde deshalb in zwei Teilen abgefaßt. Der vorliegende Teil I behandelt die Strömung von Flüssigkeiten, Teil II die Diffusion. Die Ergebnisse des ersten Teiles können wie folgt zusammengefaßt werden.Die Hohlräume im Holz variieren in Form und Größe von großen Gefäßen in Laubhölzern, die man sehon bei geringen Vergrößerungen erkennen kann, bis hinab zu kleinsten Zwischenräumen von molekularer Größenordnung. Die Hohlräume in trockenem ungequollenem Holz können einen Anteil von weingen Prozent nicht überschreiten. Berichte über wesentlich höhere Werte sind insofern falsch, als hierbei die in den Zellwänden enthaltene Feuchtigkeit und sämtliche füllenden Stoffe nicht mit in Rechnung gestellt werden. Nur polare Flüssigkeiten können in die Zellwände eindringen, wo sie in fester Lösung durch eine Kraft festgehalten werden, die größer ist als die Kohäsionskraft im Holze selbst. Der Fluß dieser gebundenen Flüssigkeit durch die Zellwände ist vernachlässigbar gering im Vergleich zu dem, der ständig durch die Öffnungen der Tüpfelmembranen stattfindet. Diese Elemente des Tüpfelaufbaues regeln die Strömungsgeschwindigkeit der Flüssigkeiten in Weichhölzern, da der Druckabfall in den Faserhohlräumen im Vergleich zu demjenigen, der durch die Membranöffnungen bedingt wird, vernachlässigbar klein ist. Bei den Harthölzern teilen die Tüpfel diesen Strömungswiderstand zusammen mit feinen Öffnungen in den Thyllen, die sich in den Gefäßen befinden. Die Strömung ist in Längsrichtung 100 bis 200 mal größer als bei Weichhölzern in Querrichtung bei gleichem Druck, da bei diesen wesentlich mehr Tüpfel je Längeneinheit durchströmt werden müssen.Auf Grund verschiedener Beobachtungen läßt sich feststellen, daß die effektive mittlere Weite der Tüpfelmembranöffnungen einen Radius zwischen 10 und 200 m haben; die kleineren Werte gelten für das wenig durchlässige Kernholz, die größeren für das durchlässigere Splintholz.Der Flüssigkeitsstrom durch das Holz wird weiterhin in hohem Maße von der Gegenwart von Luft oder anderen Gasen beeinflußt. Nur unter Anwendung verhältnismäßig aufwendiger Vorkehrungen zur Entfernung der in Lösung gegangenen Luft ist es möglich, reproduzierbar gleichmäßige Strömungsgeschwindigkeiten zu erhalten. Gegenüber einem reinen Flüssigkeitsstrom benötigt man für ein Flüssigkeits-Gasgemisch einen wesentlich höheren Druck, um es durch das Holz zu führen. Der Druck, der notwendig ist, um die erste Gasblase als Ergebnis einer Flüssigkeitsverdrängung in einem flüssigkeitsgesättigten Holz zu erzeugen, kann zusammen mit der Oberflächenspannung zur Berechnung des größten wirksamen Radius aller parallel laufenden Durchflußwege verwendet werden, wobei dieser wirksame Radius gleichzeitig auch der kleinste Radius aller in Serie, d. h. hintereinander liegenden Durchflußwege ist. Der größte Radius der Faserhohlräume, der größte wirksame Radius der Tüpfelmembranöffnungen für den Durchfluß durch einen Tüpfel jedes Durchflußweges und der mittlere größte wirksame Radius der Tüpfelmembranöffnungen für den Durchfluß durch eine größere Anzahl hintereinander liegender Tüpfel kann mit Hilfe von Verdrängungsmessungen an Weichholzquerschnitten, deren Dicke vom Mikrotomschnitt bis zum mehrere Faserlängen dicken Stück reicht, berechnet werden. Diese Dicken betragen für White cedar Splintholz 30 m, 2 m bzw. 0,1... 0,2 m. Die letztgenannten Zahlen sind das drei- bis sechsfache der am häufigsten auftretenden Größe der membranöffnungen, Sie wurden durch Messung des Abfalles der Durchflußmenge feuchter Luft durch Holz, der durch Kondensationserscheinungen in den zusammenhängenden Öffnungen zustande kam, ermittelt. Die errechneten Daten lassen erkennen, daß der Radius der am häufigsten auftretenden wirksamen Tüpfelmembranöffnungen zwischen 0,01 und 0,02 m liegt. Der große Widerstand gegen die Imprägneirung von Holz muß auf die sehr kleinen Membranöffnungen bei den schwer zu imprägnierenden Holzarten zurückgeführt werden, und zwar auf Grund der Tatsache, daß die Oberflächenspannung in den jeweiligen öffnungen der Feinstruktur überwunden werden muß. Dies gilt auch für die Imprägnierung von trockenem Holz, da die dampfförmige Phase schon vor der vordringenden Flüssigkeit kondensieren kann. Um also diese Oberflächenspannungseffekte zu umgehen, erscheint es sinnvoll, Behandlungsverfahren mit gasförmigen Mitteln zu entwickeln.Die Bewegung von freiem Wasser während der Trocknung wassergesättigten Holzes ist beschränkt 1. auf eine Bewegung, die durch ein inneres hydrostatisches Druckgefälle infolge der Erwärmung über den Siedepunkt des Wassers herbeigeführt wird, oder 2. auf die Trocknung von wassergesättigtem Holz unter der Bedingung, daß die Trocknungsspannung, die sich in der größten Tüpfelmembranöffnung einer Faser ausbildet, die Proportionalitätsgrenze für den Druck senkrecht zur Faserrichtung überschreitet. In diesem Falle kollabiert die Faser, da das Wasser unter Zugspannung aus dem Faserhohlraum ausfließt. Ist jedoch der Widerstand gegen den Zellkollaps größer als die Trocknungsspannung, so tritt an der größten Tüpfelöffnung Verdampfung ein und anschließend der Rückfluß in den Faserhohlraum. Die Feuchtigkeitszone in einer Holzprobe wird also in Richtung auf das Zentrum zu immer kleiner, ohne daß die Feuchtigkeit innerhalb der Zone selbst absinkt. Ein gewöhnliches diffusionsgesteuertes Feuchtigkeitsgefälle erstreckt sich nach innen bis zum Fasersättigungspunkt, gefolgt von einem plötzlichen Feuchtigkeitsanstieg bis zum Ausgangswert.Im Normalfalle enthalten aber die Faserhohlräume des Holzes einige Luftblasen, die größer sind als die größte Tüpfelmembranöffnung. Dabei fließt das freie Wasser unter der Trocknungsspannung ab, ohne daß ein Kollaps eintritt, da die innere Spannung auf Grund der Ausdehnung der Luft herabgemindert wird. Unter diesen Bedingungen bildet die Feuchtigkeitsverteilung oberhalb des Fasersättigungspunktes einen ziemlich glatten Übergang zu dem Teil unterhalb des Fasersättigungspunktes. Diese Art der Feuchtigkeitsbewegung des freien Wassers ist zwar keine Diffusion, aber sie wird durch die Diffusion unterhalb des Fasersättigungspunktes gesteuert. Aus all dem geht klar hervor, daß die Bewegung freier Flüssigkeiten in Holz sehr komplex ist und von einer ganzen Reihe verschiedener Faktoren beeinflußt wird, deren wichtigste hier besprochen werden sollen.

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Contribution from the School of Forestry, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Raleigh, North Carolina, published with the approval of the Director of Research as Paper No. 2141 of the Journal Series.     

Chemical treatment of wood for musical instruments. Part I: acoustically important properties of wood for the Ranad (Thai traditional xylophone)

The purpose of this study is to determine the important acoustic properties of wood for making Ranad bars and the resonator box. The woods used in this study were separated into two groups. The first group is the type of wood that has been used to make Ranad for centuries: Ching-Chan (Dalbergia oliveri Gamble) and Ma-Had (Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb.) for making the bars, and Ka-Nun (Artocarpus neterophylla Lamk.) out of which the resonator box is made. The second group comprises woods that are abundant in Thailand and are genetically related to the first group. The physical and mechanical properties of the woods in both groups were measured including the specific dynamic Youngs modulus (E/), density (), hardness (H), acoustic conversion efficiency (ACE), and sound refraction coefficients (||). The results revealed that high and consistent || were crucial factors of the Ranad bar properties in addition to E/, , and H. The results from measurements made on the resonator box wood revealed that high E/, ACE, and high and consistent || were its crucial properties.     

Ultrastructural features affecting mechanical properties of wood fibres

The purpose of this review is to re-examine some of the existing knowledge on the ultrastructure of softwood fibres and modelling of the hygroelastic properties of these fibres. The motivation is that the ultrastructure of wood fibres has a strong influence on fibre properties such as stiffness and hygroexpansion. This structure-property relationship can be modelled with, for instance, composite mechanics to assess the influence of ultrastructure on the fibre properties that in turn control the engineering properties of wood fibre composites and other wood-based materials. Comprehensive information about the ultrastructure is presented that can be useful in modelling the hygroelastic behaviour of wood fibres. Many attempts to model ultrastructure-property relationships that have been carried out over the years are reviewed. Even though models suffer from limiting approximations at some level, they have been useful in revealing valuable insights that can help to clarify experimentally determined behaviour of wood fibres. Still, many modelling approaches in the literature are of limited applicability, not the least when it comes to geometry of the fibre structure. Therefore, an example of finite element modelling of geometrically well-characterized fibres is given. This approach is shown to be useful to asses the influence of the commonly neglected irregular shape on elastic behaviour and stress state in wood fibres. Comparison is also made with an analytical model which assumes cylindrical fibre shape. Predictions of the elastic properties made with analytical modelling of cylindrical fibres and with finite element modelling of geometrically characterized fibres are in concert, but the stress state and failure predictions only show qualitative similarity. It can be concluded that calculations on fibres with the irregular and more realistic geometry combined with experiments on single fibres are necessary for a better and more quantitative understanding of the hygroelastic behaviour and particularly failure of wood fibres. It is hoped that this paper can provide a foundation and an inspiration for modelling, in combination with experiments and microscopy, for better predictions of the mechanical behaviour of wood fibres and wood fibre composites.     

Ultrastructural features affecting mechanical properties of wood fibres

Abstract

The purpose of this review is to re-examine some of the existing knowledge on the ultrastructure of softwood fibres and modelling of the hygroelastic properties of these fibres. The motivation is that the ultrastructure of wood fibres has a strong influence on fibre properties such as stiffness and hygroexpansion. This structure–property relationship can be modelled with, for instance, composite mechanics to assess the influence of ultrastructure on the fibre properties that in turn control the engineering properties of wood fibre composites and other wood-based materials. Comprehensive information about the ultrastructure is presented that can be useful in modelling the hygroelastic behaviour of wood fibres. Many attempts to model ultrastructure–property relationships that have been carried out over the years are reviewed. Even though models suffer from limiting approximations at some level, they have been useful in revealing valuable insights that can help to clarify experimentally determined behaviour of wood fibres. Still, many modelling approaches in the literature are of limited applicability, not the least when it comes to geometry of the fibre structure. Therefore, an example of finite element modelling of geometrically well-characterized fibres is given. This approach is shown to be useful to asses the influence of the commonly neglected irregular shape on elastic behaviour and stress state in wood fibres. Comparison is also made with an analytical model which assumes cylindrical fibre shape. Predictions of the elastic properties made with analytical modelling of cylindrical fibres and with finite element modelling of geometrically characterized fibres are in concert, but the stress state and failure predictions only show qualitative similarity. It can be concluded that calculations on fibres with the irregular and more realistic geometry combined with experiments on single fibres are necessary for a better and more quantitative understanding of the hygroelastic behaviour and particularly failure of wood fibres. It is hoped that this paper can provide a foundation and an inspiration for modelling, in combination with experiments and microscopy, for better predictions of the mechanical behaviour of wood fibres and wood fibre composites.     

Physical and mechanical properties of Pinus leucodermis wood

Abstract

The present work reports on the main physical and mechanical properties of Pinus leucodermis mature wood, one of the least studied coniferous species in south-east Europe. Pinus leucodermis heartwood specimens were found to have average density values of 0.73 g cm^?3 at equilibrium moisture content of 11.5% and average density of 0.64 g cm^?3 under oven-dry conditions. The overall tangential shrinkage was 3.4% and the radial shrinkage was 1.9%. The modulus of rupture was on average 77 N mm^?2, while the static modulus of elasticity averaged 7087 N mm^?2. The hardness of P. leucodermis heartwood using the modified Janka test was 33.4 N mm^?2 in the transverse direction and 48.0 N mm^?2 in the longitudinal direction, while its compression strength parallel to grain was approximately 41.6 N mm^?2.     

Studies on opposite wood in conifers Part I: Chemical composition

Summary Opposite wood, normal side wood, and compression wood were isolated from leaning stems of Abies balsamea, Larix laricina, Picea mariana, Pinus resinosa, and Tsuga canadensis and were subjected to analyses for lignin and relative carbohydrate composition. There were no statistically significant differences between the data obtained for opposite wood and side wood. Contrary to some earlier reports, opposite wood has exactly the same content of lignin, cellulose, and hemicelluloses as has corresponding normal wood.This paper is dedicated to Dean Edwin C. Jahn in honor of his 70th birthday.     

Properties of the cell wall constituents in relation to the longitudinal elasticity of wood

This study examined the origin of the moisture dependency of the longitudinal Youngs modulus of wood (E _L ) in relation to the microfibril angle (MFA) of the S2 layer of the secondary wall. Microtomed early wood specimen of sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D.Don) were used for the experiment. The following was revealed:

Properties of cell wall constituents in relation to longitudinal elasticity of wood

 To predict the origin of longitudinal elasticity of the solid wood in relation to the composite structure of the wood cell wall, an analytical procedure was developed on the basis of the idea of “the reinforced-matrix hypothesis” originally introduced by Barber and Meylan (1964). A multi-layered circular cylinder, having the CML, the S1, and the S2 layers, was used as a model of the ligno-cellulosic (wood) fiber, and the elastic properties of an isolated wood fiber were formulated mathematically. In the formulation, not only the structural factors, such as the microfibril angle and the thickness of each layer, but also the environmental condition, e.g. the moisture content, were taken into consideration. The effects of the moisture content and the microfibril angle upon the longitudinal Young's modulus and the Poisson's ratio of the wood fiber were simulated by using the newly derived formulae. It is anticipated to give a start to estimate the fine structure and the internal properties of the cell wall constituents in relation to the macroscopic behaviors of the wood through simulating the mechanical behaviors of the wood fiber. Received 17 August 1999     

Physical and mechanical properties of wood after moisture conditioning

Some properties of wood (hinoki:Chamaecyparis obtusa) moisture-conditioned by an adsorption process from a dry state and by two desorption processes (from a water-saturated state and from a state with a moisture content slightly below the fiber saturation point) were investigated. The moisture contents of wood conditioned by the adsorption process and by the desorption process continued to approach to one another for the moisture-conditioning period of over 50 weeks. Accordingly, sorption hysteresis should be regarded as a transitional phenomenon that occurs during the process of approaching the true equilibrium, which requires a long time. The wood conditioned by the desorption process beginning from a water-saturated state showed slightly smaller dimensions than those conditioned by the adsorption process with the same moisture content; however, the wood conditioned by the desorption process from a moisture content below the fiber saturation point showed slightly larger dimensions than those conditioned by the adsorption process. The wood conditioned by the adsorption process from a dry state showed a higher modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture than did the wood conditioned from a water-saturated state with the same moisture content. The mechanical properties of the wood also varied based on the states at which the desorption process was started. This is a notable characteristic of the relation between the drying condition and the mechanical properties of wood.     

High-temperature mechanical properties and thermal recovery of balsa wood

This article presents an experimental study into thermal softening and thermal recovery of the compression strength properties of structural balsa wood (Ochroma pyramidale). Balsa is a core material used in sandwich composite structures for applications where fire is an ever-present risk, such as ships and buildings. This article investigates the thermal softening response of balsa with increasing temperature, and the thermal recovery behavior when softened balsa is cooled following heating. Exposure to elevated temperatures was limited to a short time (15 min), representative of a fire or postfire scenario. The compression strength of balsa decreased progressively with increasing temperature from 20° to 250°C. The degradation rates in the strength properties over this temperature range were similar in the axial and radial directions of the balsa grains. Thermogravimetric analysis revealed only small mass losses (<2%) in this temperature range. Environmental scanning electron microscopy showed minor physical changes to the wood grain structure from 190° to 250°C, with holes beginning to form in the cell wall at 250°C. The reduction in compression properties is attributed mostly to thermal viscous softening of the hemicellulose and lignin in the cell walls. Post-heating tests revealed that thermal softening up to 250°C is fully reversible when balsa is cooled to room temperature. When balsa is heated to 250°C or higher, the post-heating strength properties are reduced significantly by decomposition processes of all wood constituents, which irreversibly degrade the wood microstructure. This study revealed that the balsa core in sandwich composite structures must remain below 200°–250°C when exposed to fire to avoid permanent heat damage.     

Orthotropic hygric and mechanical material properties of oak wood

The present study examines the three-dimensional hygric and mechanical behavior of oak wood. The moisture equilibrium state, characterized by the sorption isotherms, was obtained from measurements taken during adsorption and desorption cycles. Sorption behavior was analyzed with the Dent theory and compared considering the sorption direction (adsorption/desorption cycle). Sorption parameters were provided for possible numerical applications in hygric material models. The corresponding swelling and shrinkage behavior was examined and characterized by the moisture expansion parameters for all anatomical directions. Orthotropic mechanical material behavior was characterized by determining the elastic engineering (Young's moduli, shear moduli, and Poisson's ratios) and the bending, compressive and compressive shear strength material parameters. Influence of moisture content (MC) on the mechanical material properties was studied using Young's moduli, Poisson's ratios, and the investigated strength parameters. A significant difference between the sorption behavior in adsorption and desorption, known as the hysteresis effect, could be proved. Furthermore, swelling and shrinkage behavior did not show any dependency on the adsorption/desorption cycle. The results confirm the significant influence of MC on the Young's moduli and the strength properties, however, did not validate an influence on the Poisson's ratios.     

Longitudinal shrinkage of wood — Part I: Longitudinal shrinkage of thin sections

Summary The possibility of using microtomed longitudinal sections of wood for the study of longitudinal shrinkage has been investigated using hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii Ait.). Cutting of the sections was shown to distort them and to affect their subsequent shrinkage. However, by increasing the inclination angle of the microtome knife, sections could be cut without change in longitudinal dimensions. The longitudinal shrinkage behaviour of such sections more than 80 m thick was little different from that of thicker sawn specimens.Measurements of longitudinal shrinkage using this technique showed that very thin sections (40 m) had greater longitudinal shrinkage than sawn wood. Partial delignification with sodium chlorite also increased longitudinal shrinkage. The longitudinal shrinkage was reproducible over successive cycles of moisture content change but not reversible, the length of a specimen at a given moisture content being less during desorption than at the same moisture content during adsorption. It is considered likely that the longitudinal shrinkage of wood is markedly affected by stresses which develop within the cell wall as the wood dries.

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Zusammenfassung Die Möglichkeit, Mikrotom-Längsschnitte zur Prüfung der Längsschwindung zu verwenden, wurde an Hoop Pine (Araucaria cunninghamii Ait.) geprüft. Dabei zeigte sich, daß die Längsschnitte beim Schneiden verschoben werden, was die nachfolgende Schwindung beeinflußt. Nachdem der Schnittwinkel des Mikrotommessers vergrößert worden war, konnten die Schnitte ohne Veränderung der Längsabmessungen abgetrennt werden. Das Längsschwindungs-Verhalten solcher Schnitte von über 80 m Dicke unterschied sich nur wenig von demjenigen dickerer, gesägter Proben.Messungen der Längsschwindung mit Hilfe des beschriebenen Verfahrens zeigten, daß sehr dünne Schnitte (40 m) eine größere Längsschwindung aufweisen als gesägte Schnitte. Die teilweise Delignifizierung mit Natrium Chlorit erhöhte ebenfalls die Längsschwindung. Die Längsschwindung blieb während aufeinanderfolgender zyklischer Feuchtigkeitsänderungen reproduzierbar, war aber nicht umkehrbar. Die Länge einer Probe war, bei gleichem Feuchtigkeitsgehalt während der Desorption geringer als während der Adsorption. Es darf als wahrscheinlich angesehen werden, daß die Längsschwindung des Holzes deutlich durch Spannungen beeinflußt wird, die sich beim Trocknen des Holzes innerhalb der Zellwand entwickeln.

     

Modelling elastic and shrinkage properties of wood based on cell structure

Summary In a previous article of the authors a model was developed for estimating elastic and shrinkage properties of a softwood cell-wall. In the present article this model is enlarged to simulate the elastic properties of defect-free softwoods. The wood model consists of earlywood, latewood and ray cells, each of which have a different cell-wall structure. In the model the ratio of earlywood to latewood is defined by a given wood density. The calculated elastic properties are in good agreement with test results.     

Acetylation of wood in combination with polysiloxanes to improve water-related and mechanical properties of wood

Scots pine sapwood was acetylated with ethyltriacetoxysilane using acetic acid as a solvent and sulfuric acid as a catalyst. A weight percent gain (WPG) of 14 % and cell wall bulking of 7 % were obtained after 5 h of reaction time. Pine specimens were acetylated with acetic anhydride in the presence of 1 % ethyltriacetoxysilane, dihydroxy-functional siloxane, acetoxy-functional siloxane, amino-functional siloxane and non-functional siloxane, respectively. Acetoxy-functional siloxane induced the greatest reduction in water uptake with a water repellent effectiveness after 24 h of up to 62 % as compared to acetylated wood. WPG and cell wall bulking increased compared to solely acetylated wood with increasing concentrations of acetoxy-functional siloxane in acetic anhydride; anti-shrink efficiency, however, did not increase. Fungal resistance of pine sapwood and beech as well as mechanical strength properties did not change when 20 % acetoxy-functional siloxane was added to acetic anhydride compared to solely acetylated specimens.     

人工林日本落叶松木材物理力学性质的研究

通过试验和统计分析的方法，研究了人工林日本落叶松木材的物理力学性质及其与密度与主要力学强度的相互关系。结果表明；人工林日本落叶松硬度和主要力学强度适中，与长白落叶松和兴安落叶松相比，日本落叶松结构相对均匀，弦径干缩差异性小，可满足各种木制品的生产要求。     

The role of vascular bundles on the mechanical properties of coconut palm wood

This study examines certain physical, mechanical, and anatomical characteristics of coconut palm wood. The results show a correlation between the anatomical characteristics and density as well as lengthwise compression. All properties (density, frequency of vascular bundles (VBs), and mechanical properties) increase with the transverse distance from the center of the trunk. The study also tests VBs from different radial sections of the coconut palm tree (Cocos nucifera) for diameter, ultimate tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity. The influence of the VBs on the overall properties of the wood is discussed.     

Modelling the structure of the softwood cell wall for computation of mechanical properties

A means to quantitatively construct two layer models of the wood cell-wall utilising basic density and mean microfibril angle data is discussed. It is assumed that the lignin distribution is uniform in the secondary wall layers, that there is a fixed polysaccharide ratio throughout the wall and that variation in wall thickness arises only from variation in S2 layer thickness. It is shown that the relative thickness of those cell wall layers in which the cellulose is transversely oriented (M+P, S1 and S3) have a significant effect on longitudinal shrinkage and that variance between computed and measured shrinkage values is reduced when compared with earlier models if both basic density and mean microfibril angle are taken into account.     

Changes in the mechanical properties of wood during a period of moisture conditioning

Changes in the modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR), and stress relaxation in the radial direction of wood (hinoki:Chamaecyparis obtusa) moisture-conditioned by the adsorption process from a dry state and by the desorption process from a moisture content slightly below the fiber saturation point were investigated. The MOE and MOR of wood conditioned by the adsorption process showed significant increases during the later stages of conditioning when the moisture content scarcely changed. However, with the desorption process they did not increase as much during later stages of conditioning, though they increased during early stages of conditioning when the moisture content greatly decreased. The stress relaxation of wood decreased with an increase in the conditioning period with both the adsorption and desorption processes. These results suggest that wood in an unstable state, caused by the existing state of moisture differed from that in a true equilibrium state shows lower elasticity and strength and higher fluidity than wood in a true equilibrium state. Furthermore, the present study demonstrates that the unstable states of wood induced during the course of drying, desorption, and possibly adsorption of moisture are slowly modified as wood approaches a true equilibrium state.