Role of soil mesofauna in dispersal of Coniothyrium minitans: transmission to sclerotia of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

Coniothyrium minitans Campbell is a mycoparasite with proven biocontrol activity against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary in the field and glasshouse. It is known to spread from sites of application but the mechanisms of dispersal are unclear. As C. minitans has been recovered from collembolans collected during glasshouse trials, and numerous mites and insects are often associated with decaying S. sclerotiorum-infected plant material in the glasshouse, the mite Acarus siro L. and the collembolan Folsomia candida Willem were used to investigate the potential of soil mesofauna to disperse C. minitans. In an initial investigation, A. siro was found to transmit the mycoparasite from infected to uninfected sclerotia of S. sclerotiorum in moist sterile sand and non-sterile soil. Subsequently, a simple assay system to monitor transfer of C. minitans from colonised wheat grains to uninfected sclerotia of S. sclerotiorum was developed. Both A. siro and F. candida transmitted C. minitans at least 55 mm to sclerotia in soil at water potentials ranging from saturation to −3.6 MPa. Transmission by A. siro was greater in drier conditions (−0.25 to −3.6 MPa) as mites survived poorly in saturated soil. However, water potentials between saturation to −3.6 MPa had no effect on transmission by F. candida, although collembolans died after 18 d at water potentials of −5.4 MPa or drier. Generally, maximum dispersal occurred within 2 weeks. In soil lacking added arthropods, negligible spread of the mycoparasite was observed. These results suggest that soil mesofauna may be important in the dissemination of C. minitans.     

杀虫剂和除草剂对生防菌盾壳霉生长的影响

本研究采用FAO推荐的菌落直径法测定了8种杀虫剂、4种除草剂、3种植物生长调节剂和1种农用抗菌素对盾壳霉菌丝的毒力。研究结果表明,杀虫剂中氯氰菊酯、阿维菌素、毒死蜱和敌敌畏对盾壳霉生长的抑制作用较大,但除敌敌畏外,其他杀虫剂EC50值均高于相应的田间最大推荐使用浓度(MRAR);辛硫磷和氧乐果对盾壳霉的抑制作用次之;而吡虫啉和灭多威则对其生长几乎没有抑制作用。4种除草剂的EC50值均明显低于相应的MRAR值,对盾壳霉生长有强的抑制作用。在正常使用浓度下植物生长调节剂萘乙酸、赤霉素、云大120对盾壳霉的生长几乎没有抑制作用。链霉素对其生长有一定影响,但EC50明显高于MRAR值。因此,在使用盾壳霉防治菌核病的田中,可以合理使用较安全的植物生长调节剂及吡虫啉和灭多威等杀虫剂,而应尽量减少和避免使用吡氟乙草灵、草甘膦、百草枯等除草剂。     

Survival of Coniothyrium minitans associated with sclerotia of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in soil

The development and survival of the mycoparasite Coniothyrium minitans associated with sclerotia of the plant pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum was studied in pasteurised and non-sterile (untreated) soil. Using scanning electron microscopy, developing pycnidia were first seen within the sclerotial medulla at 7 days post-inoculation with the mycoparasite in pasteurised soil. However, by 14 days post-inoculation, pycnidia had developed fully in both pasteurised and non-pasteurised treatments, and conidial droplets were exuded onto the outer surface of the infected sclerotia. Thirty days post-inoculation, irrespective of soil treatment, the majority of the sclerotial medulla had been converted to pycnidia, with the sclerotial rind remaining largely intact. The pycnidia and dried intact droplets were still observed 6 months post-inoculation with C. minitans, although the conidia on the outer surface of the dried droplets had largely collapsed by this stage. Germinability studies at 10 months post-inoculation showed that approximately 13% of the conidia in dried droplets were still viable. This work shows the potential for infected sclerotia of S. sclerotiorum to provide a unique reservoir for the survival of C. minitans.     

有机肥施用对农田中小型土壤动物群落的影响

2016年玉米生长季6～9月,以农田土壤为研究对象,设置了有机肥4个不同施用量处理,即0 kg·hm~(-2)(CK)、15 000 kg·hm~(-2)(OF1)、30 000 kg·hm~(-2)(OF2)、45 000 kg·hm~(-2)(OF3),并对其中小型土壤动物群落及其多样性的变化进行调查研究。研究结果表明,1)从试验样地共捕获中小型土壤动物2 821只,其中:OF处理显著提高了中小型土壤动物个体密度(P0.05),OF1、OF2和OF3处理分别较CK提高2.28%、31.93%和60.70%;有机肥施用有降低类群数的趋势,但无显著差异(P0.05);2)各处理对中小型土壤动物多样性指数无显著影响(P0.05);3)农田中小型土壤动物具有明显表聚性,各处理0～10 cm土层的个体密度和类群数显著高于10～20和20～30 cm土层的个体密度(P0.05)。有机肥施用对农田中小型土壤动物具有一定的影响,有机肥对土壤的影响是深远的,目前的结果着重表现在对个体密度的影响较大,对多样性的变化,需要长期观测。     

Interactions between soil micro- and mesofauna and plants in an ecofarming system

Interactions between crops and soil micro- and mesofauna within the root zone were investigated under field conditions on sandy loam on a larger spatial scale and in columns in the laboratory on a smaller spatial scale. During the vegetation period of summer wheat from April to July 1999 soil samples were taken monthly directly from the root zone within plant rows and between plant rows hardly penetrated by roots. Abundances of Enchytraeidae, Collembola, soil flagellates, enzyme activities and contents of total carbon and nitrogen were determined. Additionally, a laboratory experiment was carried out with soil columns. Soil from the field was defaunated and inoculated with soil fauna (Enchytraeidae, Collembola, earthworms) in different combinations. Furthermore, summer wheat was sown. Enzyme activities, soil flagellate abundance and contents of total carbon and nitrogen were measured after 2, 6 and 14 weeks. Our field results revealed considerable interactions between plant roots, sampling date and soil layer affecting Enchytraeidae and Collembola. Within plant rows flagellate numbers correlated higher with N_t and C_t than between plant rows. In the laboratory close relationships between soil fauna as well as enzyme activities and nutrients contents were found within the root zone.     

Seasonal differentiation of soil mesofauna in a littoral dune of the Egyptian Mediterranean coast

Summary Soil mesofauna (sensu Ghilarov, i.e., larger than 1 mm) was sampled from under four shrub species (Lygos raetam, Thymelaea hirsuta, Lycium shawii, and Josonia candicans) growing on the littoral oolitic sand dunes at Gharbaniat, 53 km W of Alexandria, Egypt, for a period of more than 30 months, spanning 3 years. Population density (PD) was calculated in relation to area of shrub canopy. Seasons were considered, according to the prevailing climatic conditions as well as to earlier physiological studies on the animals concerned, as: four winter months, four summer months and two months for each of the transitional seasons spring and autumn. The PD values obtained for each season thus defined were combined for the 41 taxa that were sampled. The table of these data was treated by correspondence analysis (CA) and ascending hierarchic classification (AHC), by the Roux DATA-VISION programme (suitable for Apple). Results from such treatment show that fauna as related to shrub species are differentiated along the first factorial axis, while as related to seasons they are differentiated along the second axis. Taxa common to all shrubs and to all seasons are centrally placed and cause some confusion in the resolution. Summer taxa are more distantly placed than those related to the other three seasons. Fauna under Lygos is richer, more diverse, and more complementary as regards trophic levels (with predators), and could probably be the source for replenishing the fauna of the other shrubs at all seasons. The AHC method did not show a similarly clear differentiation.Dedicated to the late Prof. Dr. M.S. Ghilarov     

Effects of soil mesofauna and farming management on decomposition of clover litter: a microcosm experiment

The effects of soil mesofauna and different farming systems on decomposition of clover (Trifolium repens) litter were investigated in a laboratory experiment. Microcosms were incubated for 16 weeks with fine and coarse litterbags in soils from three types of management systems: fallow, integrated farming and organic farming, the latter two cropped with wheat. The effects were studied by analysing litter mass loss, C and N content, DOC, nitrate and pH in soil leachate, and CO₂ production, as well as mesofauna. Mesofauna significantly accelerated mass loss and C and N release from clover litter in all three soils. With mesofauna access, at the end of the experiment average clover mass loss was almost twice as high and clover C and N content were 60% lower than without mesofauna. Farming systems influenced the decomposition through affecting both element turnover and mesofauna. Although in the first weeks less N was leached from organic farming than from integrated farming soil, cumulative N leaching did not differ between these soils. However, more than 20% less N was leached from the fallow soil than from the field soils. CO₂ production was highest in fallow soil. Here, mesofauna had no effect on this variable. In soil with integrated farming, mesofauna reduced cumulative CO₂ production by 10% whereas in soil from organic farming it increased CO₂ production by 20%. Our data suggest that differences in C and N turnover in different management systems are strongly mediated by soil mesofauna.     

Structural-functional organization of the soil mesofauna population in bogs and waterlogged forests of northwestern Karelia

The soil mesofauna was studied in two ecological series (oligotrophic and mesotrophic) of bogs in northwestern Karelia. The earlier found differences in the structural-functional organization of the soil mesofauna in the bogs investigated were confirmed. The high indices of the taxonomic diversity and abundance of mesopedobionts were characteristic of the mesotrophic biogeocenoses. Among the factors limiting the activity of the mesopedobionts, the hydrothermal regime and soil acidity played the leading part. In the series of the bog biogeocenoses studied, the abundance of mesopedobionts increased with the increasing soil acidity, lowering the groundwater table and decreasing the content of sodium extracted by the ammonium acetate solution. Zoophages predominated in the trophic structure of the oligotrophic bogs due to the unfavorable conditions for large invertebrates there; in the mesotrophic bogs, myxophages were the dominants. The abundance of myxophages increased in the mesotrophic series simultaneously with the increasing nitrogen content in the soil mesofauna-inhabited soil horizons. In the mesotrophic biogeocenoses, saprophages were not numerous (one species of litter earthworms). Probably, in the bog soils, they are substituted for myxophages.     

Quantitative characteristics of soil mesofauna in the semidesert solonetzic complex of the north Caspian region

The results of long-term quantitative assessments of the invertebrate populations inhabiting the soils of a clayey semidesert are analyzed. The dominant species in the different soils of a solonetzic soil complex are compared. The distribution patterns of the dominant groups of invertebrates in relation to the soil and vegetation complexity dictated by the clearly expressed microrelief are discussed. The changes in the populations of the soil invertebrates are considered against the background of changes in the precipitation during the growing season in different years. It is shown that the population density of the soil invertebrates varies within broad limits in all the soils of the complex. At the same time, it remains considerably lower in the solonchakous solonetzes of the microhighs in comparison with that in the soils of the slopes and microlows. The most contrasting differences in the species composition and the numbers of soil invertebrates are observed for the solonetzes of the microhighs and the meadow-chestnut soils of the microlows. This work was performed at the Dzhanybek Research Station of the Institute of Forestry of the Russian Academy of Sciences on the Volga-Ural interfluve (30 km to the north of Lake El’ton).     

Reduction of sclerotial inoculum of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum with Coniothyrium minitans

Aspects of the biology of C. minitans and its potential for control of S. sclerotiorum were investigated.Temperatures below 7°C resulted in comparatively slow rates of germination and infection of sclerotia by C. minitans. The optimum temperature for germination, growth, infection of sclerotia, and destructive parasitism by C. minitans was 20°C. The optimum relative humidity for germination, growth and infection by C. minitans was above 95%.Autumn inoculations with suspensions of conidia, pycnidia and mycelium of C. minitans in the field resulted in negligible numbers of sclerotia remaining viable after 1 month. With culture-grown sclerotia 2 months were required for a similar reduction of sclerotial viability. In the absence of C. minitans mulching had no significant effect on sclerotial viability. In the presence of C. minitans mulching did, however, influence the viability and infection by C. minitans of culture-grown sclerotia. Populations of field sclerotia also differed from culture-grown sclerotia in that they harboured an internal population of microorganisms, which included C. minitans, and had a lower level of viability at the commencement of the treatments.A winter application of C. minitans did not result in significant infection of sclerotia nor in a reduction in viability of sclerotia. This failure is believed to have resulted from low temperatures and dry conditions.     

Effect of density and species richness of soil mesofauna on nutrient mineralisation and plant growth

The aim of this study was to test the relative importance of changes in density and species richness of soil mesofauna as determinants of nutrient mineralisation and plant growth. The experiment was carried out using microcosms containing a mixture of plant litter and soil in which seedlings of Lolium perenne were planted, and a range of combinations of levels of density and species richness of microarthropods added. Over the duration of the experiment, nutrient release, measured as concentrations of NO₃ ^--N and total N in leachates, increased significantly with increasing microarthropod density, but decreased with increasing species richness. Leachate concentrations of NH₄ ⁺-N, dissolved organic N and C (DON and DOC) were not affected by the faunal treatments. Soil respiration, a measure of microbial activity, decreased with increasing density of microarthropods, whereas microbial biomass was not affected by microarthropods. Increasing density of soil animals had a negative effect on the shoot biomass of L. perenne while the effect of species richness was positive. Neither the species richness nor density of soil microarthropods was found to significantly influence root biomass. We conclude that variations in animal density had a greater influence on soil nutrient mineralisation processes than did species richness. Possible reasons for these opposing effects of animal density and diversity on soil N mobilization are discussed.     

Extracting soil microarthropods with olive oil: A novel mechanical extraction method for mesofauna from sandy soils

Many soil ecologists still encounter practical difficulties when extracting microarthropods from the soil. Methods using a humidity gradient, established by the use of a heat source, for collecting soil animals appeared not sufficiently efficient in case of sandy soils. For such type of soils, flotation techniques proved more suitable. The use of toxic or aggressive flotation fluids like kerosene, dibromo ethane, carbon tetrachloride and heptane, however, makes these methods less favourable. To circumvent this problem, a novel technique has been developed based on the flotation principle but using olive oil. The method uses a pumping system that injects olive oil at the base of a Perspex column in which the soil sample is suspended in water using a propeller. In this way, intensive contact between oil droplets and the organisms is established, increasing extraction efficiency. After stopping the propeller, animals can easily be collected from the oil floating to the water surface. Adding coloured mites to soil samples was used to determine extraction efficiency of the method. Average (±SD) recoveries of 82.7 ± 7.4% (n = 34) and 89.7 ± 10.0% (n = 10), respectively were obtained when extracting storage mites and predatory mites from a sandy soil.     

不同土壤环境对温郁金栽培的影响研究

试验研究不同土壤环境对温郁金栽培的影响结果表明,在石灰土上栽培的温郁金具有较长的生长期和较高的生物量,莪术中莪术油含量也比栽培在酸性红壤上的高,石灰土比红壤更能忍受施加铵态氮肥带来的负面效应。     

Short-term mesofauna responses to soil additions of corn stover biochar and the role of microbial biomass

Biochar additions have been suggested to influence soil microbial communities that, through a cascade effect, may also impact soil fauna. In turn, any direct biochar effects on fauna can influence microbial communities through grazing, physical fragmentation of organic debris (and biochar) and modifying soil structure. If biochar creates a favorable environment for soil microorganisms, it is also plausible for fauna to be attracted to such microbially enriched habitats. However, how soil fauna respond to biochar addition to soil and what are the main factors that drive their behavior has rarely been experimentally addressed. Therefore, the behavior of two mesofauna species was assessed as a result of corn stover biochar (slow pyrolysis at 600 °C) additions to a loamy temperate soil, after preincubation for 2, 17, 31 and 61 d, and related to variations in microbial biomass and activity. Microbial biomass increased by 5–56% and activity by 6–156% with increasing biochar rates for the different preincubation times. Over the incubation time, microbial biomass did not change or increased at most 15% with the different biochar rates, while in turn microbial activity decreased steadily (around 70–80% at day 61). Enchytraeids generally did not show avoidance or preference to biochar when provided with an alternative unamended soil, while collembolans often showed avoidance responses. However, collembolan avoidance to biochar decreased or disappeared in biochar mixtures with higher microbial biomass and water extractable NH₄-N content, agreeing with the plausible role of microorganisms to potentially attract soil fauna after biochar applications. Avoidance response was mainly explained by environmental preferences of the test species and not by any toxic effect of the biochar in this study. However, avoidance after the application of biochar may still need to be considered due to the potential negative impacts of individuals’ migration on soil ecosystem functioning.     

Influence of elevated CO2 and GM barley on a soil mesofauna community in a mesocosm test system

We hypothesized that the combined effect of rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) and increasing use of genetically modified (GM) crops in agriculture may affect soil food-webs. So we designed a study for the assessment of the effects of elevated CO₂ (eCO₂) concentrations and GM barley on a soil-mesofauna community employing a 2nd tier mesocosm test system. The GM barley, Hordeum vulgare cv. Golden Promise, had a modified content of amino acids and it was compared with three non-GM barley cultivated varieties including the isogenic line. Our mesocosm experiment was conducted in a greenhouse at ambient (aCO₂) and eCO₂ (+80 ppm) levels and included a multispecies assemblage of Collembola, Acari and Enchytraeidae with either a GM or conventional spring barley varieties. To detect food-web changes we added dried maize leaves naturally enriched in δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N relative to the soil substrate. Soil, plants and animals were collected after five and eleven weeks. We found that the eCO₂ concentration did not affect the plant biomass, but the predatory mite and two collembolan species showed significantly lower abundances at eCO₂. The densities of three collembolan species (Folsomia fimetaria, Proisotoma minuta and juveniles of Mesaphorura macrochaeta) was significantly lower in the GM treatment compared to some of the non-GM varieties. F. fimetaria was less abundant in presence of GM barley compared to the cultivated barley variety “Netto” at both CO₂ levels, while the density of P. minuta was significantly reduced with the GM barley compared to variety “Netto” at aCO₂ and the isogenic variety at eCO₂. Maize litter acted as a food source for the community, as it was revealed by δ¹³C values in microarthropods. Microarthropod δ¹³C decreased over time, which indicates a diet change of the species towards carbon derived from barley, due to maize litter decomposition. The industrially produced CO₂ gas also had a role as an isotopic marker, as the different δ¹³C values were reflected in the barley and in the collembolan species. GM barley did not affect δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values of soil animals indicating that the overall trophic structure of the mesofauna community was not changed compared to the non-GM cultivated varieties. The mesocosm methodology integrating stable isotope analysis demonstrates the potential of the multi-species mesocosm as a tool to detect and track changes in the soil trophic interactions in response to environmental pressures, climate and novel agricultural crops.     

Role of the anecic earthworm Lumbricus terrestris L. in the distribution of plant residue nitrogen in a corn (Zea mays)–soil system

While the benefits of earthworms to crop production are widely acknowledged, the mechanisms involved are poorly understood. We examined the effects of an anecic earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris) on the distribution of plant residue N in a corn (Zea mays)/soil system. Soil (mixed Ap and B horizons) mesocosms (10 cm diameter, 39 cm deep) were amended with ¹⁵N-labeled corn litter, inoculated with one earthworm per mesocosm (WORM) or none (CTRL), and pre-incubated for 1, 2 or 3 weeks. Earthworms and remaining plant residues were removed and sweet corn grown in the mesocosms in a greenhouse for 3 weeks. Litter, earthworms, shoots, roots and bulk and burrow soil were analyzed for total N and ¹⁵N. Plant and earthworm biomass were also determined. Earthworms had no significant effect on the N content of shoots, roots or bulk soil. Recovery of ¹⁵N ranged from 92.6 to 101.9% in CTRL and 60.2 to 83.2% in the WORM treatment. The ¹⁵N content of bulk soil in the WORM treatment was significantly higher than in CTRL and increased with pre-incubation time. Excess at.% ¹⁵N of burrow soil was 10–100 times higher than in bulk soil. Incorporation of ¹⁵N by shoots and roots was significantly higher in the WORM treatment and increased significantly with pre-incubation time only in the WORM treatment. In WORM mesocosms pre-incubated for 3 weeks, the distribution of added ¹⁵N was 9.8% in litter, 6.5% in plant, 31.5% in soil, 12.0% in earthworms and 39.8% presumably lost as gas; in CTRL mesocosms, the values were 75.7% in litter, 3.2% in plant, 13.7% in soil and 7.4% in presumed gas losses. The activities of L. terrestris altered the distribution of plant residue N significantly, increasing the transfer of N to plants and soil and enhancing losses of N in the gas phase as pre-incubation time increased.     

Arsenic and chromium resistance mechanisms in the Micrococcus luteus group

High arsenic (As) and chromium (Cr) concentrations are currently receiving attention because of their negative effects on the environment and human health. Microorganisms inhabiting contaminated environments have developed resistance mechanisms against the toxicity of these pollutants. Indeed, members of the bacterial genus Micrococcus have been isolated from different toxic metal-contaminated environments; however, knowledge concerning its resistance mechanisms to As and Cr toxicity remains lim...     

Phosphate fertilizer enhancing soil erosion: effects and mechanisms in a variably charged soil

Purpose

The extensive application of phosphate fertilizers could produce a series of environmental problems by adsorbing on the surface of soil particle and migrating into water during soil erosion. Therefore, this study is to explore the effects of phosphate on soil aggregate stability and soil erosion and to analyze the mechanisms of phosphate enhancing soil erosion from the scope of soil charge density, electric field, and particle interaction.

Materials and methods

A variable charged soil (0–20 cm) was pre-treated firstly by KCl, K₂HPO₄, and KH₂PO₄, respectively. Under the conditions of KCl, K₂HPO₄, and KH₂PO₄ solutions with concentrations of 0.0001, 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, and 1 mol L^?1, (1) the amounts of soil particle transport and erosion intensities were measured using rainfall simulation with electrolyte solutions instead of rainwater; (2) the aggregate stabilities were measured by weighing the particles and micro-aggregates of <2, 5, and 10 μm after soil aggregate breakdown in electrolyte solutions; and (3) the zeta potentials of soil particles were measured in electrolyte solutions.

Results and discussion

The application of K₂HPO₄ and KH₂PO₄ in soil strongly enhanced soil aggregate breakdown and soil erosion, while in KCl application, soil aggregates were stable and erosion did not occur. Moreover, the intensities of soil aggregate breakdown and soil erosion for K₂HPO₄ application were much stronger than that for KH₂PO₄ application. Phosphate, especially K₂HPO₄, strongly increased surface negative charge density of soil particles and thus increased the electrostatic repulsive pressure between adjacent soil particles in aggregates, and as a result, the soil erosion intensity increased. However, the surface charge density was not increased by the increased pH, specific adsorption, and dispersion force adsorption but possibly attributed to a non-classic induction force adsorption arising from the anionic non-classic polarization in the strong electric field around soil particle surface.

Conclusions

The application of phosphate decreased aggregate stability and stimulated soil erosion through increasing charge density of particle surface by a new non-classic induction adsorption of phosphate.

     

种植松口蘑richoloma matsutake的土壤的生态学特性

A 5－year study on the soil ecological environment of matsutake(Tricholoma Matsutake)growing areas near Changbai Mountains showed that several factors,such as climate,parent material,organism and landform,which form the soil ecosystem provided sutable ecological environment for the formation and growth of matsutake How to improve the construction and function of the soil ecosystem in order to utilize the natural resource continumously was also studied.