Institutional change in the forest sector: trust and mental models

The paper looks, from a perspective of institutional economics, at a process of change of rules and organisational practises in the forestry sector, particularly drawing on a case study of small-scale private forest owners in the Allgäu, Bavaria. It is argued that the process of change may be initiated by the traditional factors mentioned by the various theories of institutional change (technological change, changes in preferences, changes in relative factor prices, etc.). However, the direction of change observed in the short run cannot be understood with the help of efficiency theories of institutional change. Denzau and North (1994) extended those theories by introducing mental models as explanatory variables. Mental models are the interpretations (half-baked theories) people use to understand their environment. As observed, mental models play a crucial role in determining the direction of change. However, the question that arose was: what determines the selection of mental models in an uncertain environment? It is observed that trust plays an important role. Therefore, an extension of the Douglas and North theory is suggested.     

Forest policy in aroused society: Ukrainian post-Orange Revolution challenges

With the collapse of the communist regime the market changes were introduced in Ukraine, as in other Central and Eastern European Countries, including forestry sector. Reform was not as radical as in other sectors of economy, nor in the forestry sector as in some other countries of region. Ukraine is involved in international forest policy dialogue, particularly Intergovernmental and Pan-European processes of the forest sector development on the principles of sustainability, but implementation of international agreements needs to be sounder in practice.This paper discusses the current situation in forest sector and achievements and failures in economic, environmental, and social aspects of forest sector development. Policy and institutional mechanisms to develop the sustainable forest management (SFM) approaches are discussed. We analyze preconditions for institutional building (legislature, institutions, policy actors) looking at both the existing potential and the constraints in the realization of urgent tasks that arise in the economy in a period of transition. Specific attention is given to the national forest policy conception and forest sector development prospects.     

Innovation Processes in Forest-related Recreation Services: The Role of Public and Private Resources in Different Institutional Backgrounds

This article examines innovation processes in forest recreational services on the basis of case studies in five European countries with differing institutional backgrounds of forest ownership and access rights. The analysis reveals that forest-related recreation services are developed under varying institutional conditions and on public as well as private land. Ideas for innovations in recreational services may come from within but often outside the forestry sector. Financing is provided from public and private sources. Both public and private spheres have important roles in providing natural, human and financial resources and usually a network of public and private actors are involved in innovation processes. Of particular importance are cross-sectoral interactions between forestry and tourism. Greater institutional support is needed for the development of forest-related recreation services because the field is at an early stage of development. It is concluded that support should focus on providing ideas and financial resources for product development and on facilitating cross-sectoral interaction between forestry and tourism actors. A particular need is seen for development of models for durable interaction between land owners and tourism operators on a regional scale.     

Moroccan Forestry Policies and Local Forestry Management in the High Atlas: A Cross Analysis of Forestry Administration and Local Institutions

This paper examines how local forestry management has evolved in the Aït Bougmez Valley (Central High Atlas, Morocco) in the last three decades and how this evolution has affected forest ecosystem conditions. It focuses on the impact of the forestry administration on ‘traditional forestry management’ since its introduction in 1985, and of recent innovation in forestry policy. The relatively new Strategic Environmental Management Analysis (SEMA) framework is applied, rather than a more ‘classical’ new institutional framework. This approach allows for a more comprehensive understanding of both strategic interactions between various actors and ecological consequences of these interactions. An interesting empirical findings is that instead of a quite simple opposition between the forestry administration and local populations, negotiation opportunities exist that are taken by the actors. This leads to specific actor configurations and sometimes unexpected environmental outcomes, even if from a global point of view, forest stands have been seriously depleted over the last 40 years mainly due to exploitation by local population and the absence of economic alternative to forest exploitation. On the other hand, the implementation of a new policy tool in such a context has to be understood as an opportunity for new actors to take part in forest management rules definition.     

Rethinking recent changes of forest regimes in Europe through property-rights theory and policy analysis

This article studies recent changes in forest regimes in Europe from an analytical perspective, combining both property-rights theory and policy analysis. Important elements of the institutional framework for forests can be identified through the application of theories from institutional economics (property and use rights) and public policy analysis. Different examples of important changes in the institutional framework in European countries illustrate which components were most likely to change in recent years: the order frame of property and use rights in Central and Eastern Europe, due to the breakdown of the socialist systems; the implicit use rights for the public due to growing needs in leisure activities and nature protection; and the implementation arrangement, where the state gradually withdraws from forest management activities. A first analysis of the triggers and dynamics of the changes shows that slow and incremental changes in public policies are much more likely to occur than any reform of the property rights or forest tenures. In order to explain the changing institutional framework, it is necessary to take into account not only the contingent external triggers, but also the logic of learning processes and the actor networks in place.     

制度变迁理论在天然林保护工程中的运用

天然林保护是在政府推动下实施的,属于强制性制度变迁。文中分析了这项制度变迁所遇到的阻力,天然林区林业职工、林农利益受损和地方财政收入减少是阻力产生的根源。为了使天然林保护工程能够顺利实施,笔者提出了减少阻力的对策,即采取各种措施对利益受损者进行补偿和扶持。     

The theory of social forestry intervention: the state of the art in Asia

This study focuses on the major issues in current thinking about the theory of social forestry development in Asia. The first of these issues concerns the cause of deforestation. The governmental view is that deforestation is a gradual process driven by community-based factors, whereas the community view is that deforestation is a stochastic process driven by external, political-economic factors. The two explanations have different implications for where the problematique of social forestry is located — in the forest community or in the forest agency — and how, therefore, it is to be addressed.A second issue concerns how and when social forestry interventions are carried out. The concept of a window-of-opportunity for intervention reflects a widespread belief that it is importantwhen interventions are carried out — with both the costs and benefits of intervention increasing as it is timed earlier and decreasing as it is timed later. A key determinant of the best time for intervention is the receptivity of the forest agency and the broader society. The purpose of intervention is to strengthen receptivity and other factors conducive to change, to hasten extant processes of change, and to minimize the possibility of a reversal of direction.A third issue is whether the focus of social forestry intervention should be on state lands or on community lands. While there are logical reasons for either foci, the continuing vacillation between them suggests the lack of a theoretical perspective with sufficient breadth to encompass them both. Whatever the focus, attitudinal change within the forest agency is usually mandated in social forestry interventions, but it is rarely accompanied with intervention in the underlying power relations, reflecting a continuing difficulty in viewing the forest agency sociologically. This lack of sociological perspective also is seen in the tendency to focus on adding resources perceived to be in short supply, instead of removing institutional obstacles —including those within the forest agency — to the proper use of existing resources.The final issue involves the unintended consequences of social forestry intervention. These include redirection of the intervention as a result of bureaucratic resistance or negative feedback, and secondary consequences stemming from the dynamic responses by forests, forest communities, and forest agencies to changes in their relationship.     

Synergies among climate change and biodiversity conservation measures and policies in the forest sector: A case study of Southeast Asian countries

Forest conservation contributes to climate change mitigation, adaptation, and biodiversity/ecosystem conservation. To enhance the co-benefits of forest conservation, it is important to promote synergies among the three measures—mitigation, adaptation, and biodiversity/ecosystem conservation—in the forest sector and eliminate the overlaps among the three measures. However, limited research exists on the analysis of their synergies. This study explores the potential for synergy among the three forest sector measures, utilizing: 1) indicators that assess enabling conditions for synergies among the three measures at the different institutional levels of policies and strategies, institutional arrangements, and financing and programs/projects; and 2) case studies of five countries in Southeast Asia: Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Lao PDR, and Cambodia.This analysis shows that the five countries all require various changes at different institutional levels in order to enhance their synergy potentials. The findings indicate the importance of national actors, financial mechanisms, programs, and projects in addressing the three measures. In terms of national actors, Thailand has the highest synergy potential due to its national-level committees and a single ministry that addresses all three measures. To enhance their synergy potentials, the other countries need to create national-level committees that address the three measures, and/or they need to enhance collaboration between the various ministries that represent the environment and forestry issues. At the financing and program/project aspects, Vietnam has the highest synergy potential. The other four countries need to develop common national funds that finance the three measures and/or develop joint programs and projects that address the three measures simultaneously.     

Forest management after the economic transition—at the crossroads between German and Scandinavian traditions

Germany and Scandinavia represent two paradigmatic forest management traditions, based on management for volume and management for profit, respectively. This study examines the prevailing silvicultural regimes and resulting economic outcomes in Germany and Sweden as benchmarks, and then corresponding analyses are performed for post-transition EU countries, represented by Poland, Lithuania and Latvia. The analyses reveal a regional gradient where Poland stands closest to the German tradition, Latvia goes through a “scandinavisation”, and Lithuania takes an intermediate position. Poland adheres to longer rotations and follows the principle of self-sufficiency, while economic efficiency has gained increased importance in Latvia. The observed gradient is likely to be sustained in the coming decades as the survey of key forest sector stakeholders reveals ideological patterns that correlate with the pace of reform of State forestry in Poland, Lithuania and Latvia.     

Service logics and strategies of Swedish forestry in the structural shifts of forest ownership: challenging the “old” and shaping the “new”

ABSTRACT

Sweden is one of the most forested countries in Europe, and it has one of the highest shares of productive forest. Production in forestry is largely reliant on the private non-industrial forest owners, who own half of the forest land. As in many countries, however, forest ownership is changing towards a higher extent of urban, female or non-forestry-background owners. This poses a challenge for the forestry services sector, mainly forest owners’ associations and companies, but also broadly the sector at large. By exploring the sales and marketing processes, this paper analyses the service logics and strategies of Swedish forestry under changing forest ownership, drawing on an interview study covering all the large actors in the Swedish forestry sector. The study illustrates an increased focus of forestry organizations on services from a strategic and managerial perspective, in customer-oriented relationship development and in value creation and sales processes, specifically in order to manage “new” forest owners and the demand of forest industries. The results highlight the domination of service logics associated with timber production and the challenges for the service market and the provision of diversified services to forest owners.     

我国非国有林业企业人工林经营的制度性交易成本成因分析

在描述并测算我国非国有林业企业人工林经营的制度性交易成本的基础上,运用并扩展"制度—行为—绩效"的分析范式,对我国非国有林业企业的制度性交易成本进行理论分析。研究表明,我国非国有林业企业面临的制度性交易成本较高,严重挤压了企业经营收入;同时,正式制度、非正式制度及其实施单独或共同对当事人行为发生作用,从而影响企业的经营权受限程度,并对交易成本产生影响。文中认为,应充分考虑历次制度的有效衔接及实施,在此基础上形成尊重产权的正式制度和非正式制度,从而保障企业的经营权并降低企业的制度性交易成本。     

Current pathways towards good forest governance for ecosystem services in the former Soviet republic Tajikistan

As one of the former Soviet republics, Tajikistan is facing a slow transition from a communist command-and-control system to a more market oriented, decentralized and participatory forestry. In the last 25 years, the country's forestry sector has undergone several reorganizations. In the process of a current reform, the overall aim of this study is to gain a broader understanding of the current state of forest sector in Tajikistan. Our specific objectives are a) to describe the current institutional network's complexity, (b) to analyze stakeholders' perceptions on the key challenges towards good forest governance, (c) and give recommendations to tackle the key challenges, so that important forest ecosystem services (ES) may be enhanced, thus, also contribute to the development of the sector. We elaborate a generic framework, which simplifies complex interaction of governance and forests ecosystem services. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected through questionnaire-based interviews with stakeholders of the forestry sector. The results indicate that the forestry sector is still far from representing good forest governance, however the newly established structure seems to be a first step. Yet, challenges in establishing sound legal frameworks, decision-making transparency, and implementation enforcement must still be overcome. While it is too early and challenging to assess the impacts of forest governance on ES and vice versa, the survey respondents highlight the importance of provisioning services for the development of the forest sector. Given the post-Soviet background, almost all member countries developed along similar lines. Therefore, the study results are not only of significance for Tajikistan, but also countries with similar history and socio-economic context.     

Forest property rights in the frame of public policies and societal change

Property rights over natural resources became a distinct area of inquiry in environmental economics and policy in the last decades, but their role has not yet been investigated thoroughly. Transition countries represent an excellent material of analysis of various policies and institutional developments concerning the regime of use and management of natural resources. The processes of societal transformation had deep impacts on the forestry sector, entailing land reforms and subsequent changes to its institutional and organisational framework. This paper presents an analysis of the reciprocal relationship between the evolving forest property rights and the conduct of policy and economic actors, in connection with their outcomes. The theoretical framework consists of institutional economics, whose core concept is that patterns of interaction between institutions and actors produce physical outcomes, assessable by criteria such as equity and efficiency. The study concentrated on three distinct periods and the applicable property regimes. Within this framework, the impacts of the characteristics of property regimes and the general framework of socio-economic conditions on the exercise of property rights were analysed. The analysis of the conduct of forest owners in relation to the institutional design was completed by the analysis of the other actors influential for land reforms. Romanian forestry sector, in evolution from the period shortly before World War II to present, represents the case of the study. Research data were collected by interviewing/questioning, participant observation and literature review. They were analysed through an integrated method of content analysis and a matrix analysis. An important conclusion is that not only the regime of forest property is determinant for the outcomes of resource use and management, but also the general settings in which they are embedded. Another essential point is that land reforms driven by either efficiency or equity rationales are not mere diversions of the benefit stream, but complex processes with serious implications for the status of the resource at stake.     

International influences in the revision of Finnish Forest Act

Major revisions of the Finnish Forest Act were carried out in 1994–1996 and 2010–2013. The need for revision emerged from societal changes and changes in the forest sector’s operational environment that related to the globalisation of markets and influences of international policies. This study analysed the influences of global and European Union forest and environmental policies on the revision of the Forest Act by combining advocacy coalition framework with the four pathways of influence framework introduced by Bernstein and Cashore. The results show that the three identified advocacy coalitions, namely Forestry administration, Private forestry and Environmental coalition remained rather stable over the two revision processes from 1990s to 2010s. The importance of the different pathways of international influence differed between the coalitions. Private forestry and Forestry administration coalitions, which represented forestry paradigm, stressed market-related arguments, whereas Environmental coalition representing environmental paradigm mainly referred to international legally binding rules and non-legally binding initiatives. The argumentation of the actors indicated that international rules and international norms and discourse were regarded to be as equally important.     

Actor-centred power: The driving force in decentralised community based forest governance

Community forestry has been described as a decentralised mode of forest governance that only partly lives up to its expectations. The power of important actors to misuse the community forestry approach for their self-interests has been reported as a major obstacle to comprehensive success. Hence, this article aims at developing an analytical, theory-based and empirically applicable framework for assessing an actor's power using community forestry as an illustrative case. The actor-centred power approach (ACP) analysis aims to provide a scientific answer to the question of who are the politically most powerful actors in community forestry practices. In making use of suitable components of power theories it builds strongly upon the social relations of actors, organisational aspects and power sources, as described by Weber, Dahl, Etzioni and their adherents. Actor-centred power approach (ACP) is defined as a social relationship in which actor A alters the behaviour of actor B without recognising B's will. In our framework we distinguish between three core elements: coercion, (dis-)incentives and dominant information. These make up the basis for observable facts that involve not only physical actions but also threats by power elements and the very sources of said power elements. Theoretical considerations show that, despite the focus being on actors, by looking to their power sources a considerable part of structural power can be more tangible at least in part, like rules, discourse or ideologies. Furthermore, the paper shows how the actor-centred power approach distinguishes power from other influences on forest management and contributes to the identification of the group of powerful actors on an empirical basis. Due to the focus on actors and well-defined and observable elements of power, the actor-centred power approach (ACP) could serve not only as a basis for research but also as a tool for quick assessment of power networks, delivering valuable preliminary information for designing forest policy in practice.     

Status and Job Satisfaction of Greek Forest Workers

The aim of this study was to examine the perception of forestry experts and forest workers on the status of the forest workers in Greece. A postal questionnaire was distributed to 115 experts on forest operations in Greece, and 106 forest workers were interviewed in the context of this study. According to the majority of the study participants, there is lack of interest on behalf of the State and the most pressing problems are income-related. The effectiveness of seminars organized during the last years is under question, since they did not result in fewer or less severe accidents. Despite the mentioned problems, the interviewed forest workers are reluctant to change their jobs, indicating a possible potential for maintaining or even increasing employment in forestry, which would warrant further study. The organization of a forest workers’ training system along with institutional changes can significantly improve the quality and the employment conditions of the Greek forest operations’ sector.     

浅论我国非公有制林业制度创新

文章以财产权制度为核心,以成本——收益为主线,界定了非公有制林业补助和非公有制林木补偿的概念和范畴,按照市场经济、放松管制及效率原则,提出了非公有制林业制度创新的价值取向和基本内容。     

Public forest policy making in post-Communist Estonia

This paper presents a case study of forest sector development during the first 10 years of economic transition in Estonia in the period 1991–2000. The analysis is based on an examination of consecutive steps in the evolution of the country's forest sector, allowing speculations and conclusions to be drawn on why some forest policy actions have been more successful than others. Using Douglass C. North's concept of ‘scaffolds’ and the factors that most influence economic progress, the author follows the interplay between the formal and informal institutions in Estonian forestry during this period. The author finds that participatory policy-making procedures, while strongly advocated in the IPF Proposals for Action, do not alone necessarily guarantee desirable policy outcomes. The existing social norms and individual decision-makers’ actions also make significant contributions to the success of forest policy implementation.     

The role of governments in forest certification—a normative analysis based on new institutional economics theories

Forest certification is an issue that changes the forestry sector more profoundly than many governmental initiatives. Governments have taken quite different approaches across the globe and over time in dealing with the phenomenon. In most regions, they have seemingly switched to a ‘wait and see’ mode when confronted with the complex and fast-developing issue of forest certification. This paper explores the usefulness of economic theories to come up with recommendations on the role of governments. The approach taken is mainly based on ‘new institutional economics’ theories, especially on economics of information and related agent issues. Data collected from policy makers are used to compare theoretical positions against empirical findings (Werle, 1997). The paper shows that the economic theories applied provide rather clear indications on the role of governments. There are essential roles, such as ensuring compatibility with laws and international obligations. These have largely been fulfilled. Ensuring legal compliance, however, might well not be the only guiding function that governments should exert for the sake of market transparency, and thus market efficiency. That concerns both setting standards for forest management and roles in setting up and running private certification systems.     

A short history of Dutch forest policy: The ‘de-institutionalisation’ of a policy arrangement

Over the past thirty years, forest policy in the Netherlands has almost entirely been integrated into nature policy. This process of ‘de-institutionalisation’ is surprising in view of widely accepted theories of institutional stability and ‘path dependency’. The process is investigated in this paper along the four dimensions of the policy arrangement approach: discourse, power, rules and actors. It is argued that a discursive shift, moving the focus from production forest to ‘forest as part of nature’ and fuelled by a number of underlying factors, lies at the heart of the process. In concordance with this shift, advocates of timber autarky lost power in favour of ‘nature advocates’. A more diverse set of actors became involved in forest policy, also reflecting a more general trend in Dutch politics towards greater openness and the erosion of neo-corporatist rules. Thus, changes in all four dimensions of the policy arrangement worked into one direction. This may explain the unusually quick and radical ‘de-institutionalisation’ of Dutch forest policy.