Ultrasonographic examination of the carpal region in cattle--normal appearance

The carpal region was examined ultrasonographically in 18 healthy cattle (14 cows, 4 bull calves) and five bovine cadavers in order to determine the normal appearance of the carpal soft tissues using 7.5 MHz linear transducers.The course of the echogenic flexor and extensor tendons over the carpus and the joint spaces interposed between the articular bone surfaces were successfully imaged in all carpi. The palmar vessels were easily visualized in live animals. The lumina of carpal tendon sheaths and the boundaries of the carpal joint pouches could not be defined. Small anechoic fluid filled areas were visualized only at the level of the joint spaces. After experimental filling, the distended synovial cavities were imaged as well demarcated anechoic areas. The cross-sectional diameters of the extensor tendons, width of the palmar joint pouches and intraluminal diameters of the palmar vessels were measured.The results presented serve as reference data for ultrasonographic investigation of disorders of the bovine carpus.     

ULTRASONOGRAPHY OF THE DORSAL AND LATERAL ASPECTS OF THE EQUINE CARPUS: TECHNIQUE AND NORMAL APPEARANCE

The normal ultrasonographic appearance of the dorsal and lateral soft tissue structures and anatomic landmarks of the equine carpus useful in clinical imaging are described.
Both limbs of 5 cadavers and 5 clinically sound adult horses were imaged using a 7.5 MHz sector transducer. At the dorsal aspect of the carpus and distal radius, the extensor carpi radialis- and the common digital extensor tendon and their tendon sheaths were easily identified. These two tendons are the most prominent structures in this region. Smaller and more difficult to identify are the tendon and tendon sheath of the extensor carpi obliquus-, the lateral digital extensor- and the ulnaris lateralis muscle. The ultrasonographic appearance and course through the carpal region of the tendons and tendon sheaths mentioned are described. Other soft tissue structures examined include the lateral collateral ligament, the carpal joint capsule and the distal articular cartilage of the radius. Ultrasonographic findings correlated well with gross anatomy in the cadavers limbs.     

Musculus extensor digiti medii proprius and musculus extensor digitorum brevis manus - a case report of a rare variation

The musculus extensor digiti medii proprius and musculus extensor digitorum brevis manus are anomalous extensor muscles of the hand. During the routine dissection of a white male cadaver a musculus extensor digiti medii proprius was seen on both hands and a musculus extensor digitorum brevis manus was seen on the left hand. The extensor medii proprius has a belly originating from the distal third of the ulna near the extensor indicis proprius and its tendon is inserted into the dorsal aponeurosis of the middle finger on both hands. On the left hand there was another anomalous muscle (musculus extensor digitorum brevis manus) which originated from the distal end of the radius, carpal ligaments and carpal joint capsule and inserted on the tendon of the extensor digiti medii proprius. This case is a multivariation of the hand extensor muscles and a musculus extensor digitorum brevis manus inserting on the musculus extensor digiti medii proprius has not been reported previously.     

Association of severity of enteric granulomatous inflammation with disseminated Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis infection and antemortem test results for paratuberculosis in dairy cows

Disseminated infection (DI) of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) in cattle may impair cow health, potentiate spread of disease, and is a potential food-safety risk. The objectives of this study were to determine the association between severity of histologic enteric lesions and the occurrence of DI, clinical signs, and positive fecal culture and serum ELISA results. Bacteriologic fecal culture and serum ELISA were performed on 40 dairy cows from MAP-infected herds. Cows were classified as having DI if MAP was isolated from any of 11 extra-intestinal tissues collected postmortem. A grade of 0-3, corresponding to the severity of histologically evident granulomatous inflammation was determined for sections of ileum, jejunum, mesenteric lymph node, and ileocolic lymph node. An overall intestinal inflammation (OII) grade of 0-3 was assigned to each cow. The proportion of cows with DI increased with tissue-specific lesion grade and OII grade. All cows with grade 3 inflammation in any single tissue had DI, however, some cows with DI had grade 1 inflammation or no lesions. In general, there was a positive association between OII grade and clinical signs, gross enteric lesions, and positive ELISA and fecal culture results. However, 12% of OII grade 0 cows had clinical signs (explained by other conditions recognized with necropsy), and the proportion of positive ELISA results was lower for OII grade 3 cows relative to grade 2 cows. Although MAP dissemination may occur early in the disease process, histopathology of intestinal tissues may be used to detect a substantial proportion of DI cows.     

PRESUMPTIVE TENOSYNOVIAL OSTEOCHONDROMATOSIS IN A HORSE

A 5 year old Arabian mare was evaluated for a non-painful swelling located dorsal to the right carpus which had been present for 2 years. Radiographically, multiple mineralized bodies were identified dorsal to the distal radius and carpus in the region of the tendon sheath of the extensor carpi radialis muscle. The radiographic appearance of the carpal bones was within normal limits. On ultrasound examination, multiple hyperechoic foci with posterior shadowing were seen adjacent to the extensor carpi radialis tendon. There was minimal distension of the tendon sheath and no abnormalities within the substance of the extensor carpi tendon were identified. Considering the radiographic and sonographic findings, a presumptive diagnosis of tenosynovial osteochondromatosis was made. Histological confirmation of this diagnosis was not obtained as the owner declined further diagnostic evaluation.     

Traumatic communication of the extensor carpi radialis tendon sheath and antebrachiocarpal joint in two horses

Two horses were examined due to lacerations at the level of the craniodistal antebrachii. Further evaluation of the lacerations revealed communication with the extensor carpi radialis tendon sheath and potentially the antebrachiocarpal joint. Positive contrast arthrography performed via the palmarolateral pouch of the antebrachiocarpal joint was used to diagnose communication with the extensor carpi radialis tendon sheath. Both the joints and tendon sheaths were treated aggressively with surgical debridement and lavage, followed by post operative medical management and rehabilitation. Both horses made a full recovery and are performing in their intended level of use with acceptable cosmetic results. Traumatic communication with the carpal joints should be considered when evaluating lacerations involving the forelimb extensor tendon sheaths.     

Relationships between clinical signs, pathological changes and tissue distribution of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in 21 cows from herds affected by Johne's disease

Twenty-one cows from eight herds affected by Johne's disease were assigned to four groups: seven were not thriving and had persistent diarrhoea, six were not thriving and had intermittent diarrhoea, four were not thriving but did not have diarrhoea, and four were clinically normal. Postmortem, macroscopic lesions consistent with Johne's disease were identified in 17 of the cows and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) was isolated from all of them. However, except for the fact that diarrhoea was correlated with the presence of lesions in the large intestine there was little correlation between the presence or absence of clinical signs and the lesions associated with Johne's disease. The tissue distribution of MAP was also poorly correlated with either the clinical signs or the lesions. The organism was widely distributed in 17 of the 21 cows, including three of the clinically normal animals, and was present in the mammary tissues of seven cows including two of the clinically normal animals. Three distinct histopathological patterns were observed in the affected intestines: infiltration of the lamina propria with giant cells, tuberculoid lesions, and lepromatous lesions; the lepromatous lesions were associated with extensive pathological changes.     

奶牛正常跗关节的超声影像学观察

采用７．５ＭＨz的线扫探头对４个奶牛尸体跗关节和６头活体奶牛的８个跗关节的正常结 构进行了超声检查。一般骨骼的回声为光环或光线,关节囊呈明显的液怀暗区,腱质呈实性强回声。跗关节背侧的腓骨第三肌、趾长伸肌和趾内侧伸肌腱均可风到,下方为宽大的胫距关节囊,外侧为腓骨长肌和趾外侧伸肌腱,该腱周围有液性暗区的腱鞘。趾关节内侧超声影像图不清楚,后方是片状的趾浅屈肌和发达的趾深肌腱。     

COMPARISON OF CLINICAL, ULTRASONOGRAPHIC, AND POSTOPERATIVE MACROSCOPIC FINDINGS IN COWS WITH BURSITIS

Clinical, ultrasonographic, and macroscopic findings of bursitis in cows were compared to assess the contribution of diagnosis and therapy planning. Sixteen dairy cows with swelling at the carpal (n = 12) or tarsal (n = 4) region were examined clinically and ultrasonographically and the findings were compared. In 10 patients the bursae were removed in toto. According to the duration of the disease (history) and clinical findings nine and seven patients had acute and chronic bursitis, respectively. Six had fluctuation and in 10 the bursa was firm. Contents were serous (n = 3), serofibrinous (n = 4), serohemorrhagic (n = 2), or purulent (n = 1). Sonographically there was fluid in all bursa except one. Capsule echogenicity varied between hypoechoic and hyperechoic and mean capsule thickness was 9.2 +/- 4.1 mm. Fourteen of the bursae contained free-floating particles. The hyperechoic capsules represented fibrous tissue, and the echogenic/hyperechoic free-floating particles were erythrocytes, purulent exudate, or fibrin masses. Capsule thickness and large free-floating particles could not be detected by clinical examination/centesis alone. However, capsule thickness, bursa contents, and the extent of inflammation could be determined ultrasonographically and this made the decision for different invasive/ operative procedures easier.     

The normal anatomical, radiographical and ultrasonographic appearance of the carpal region of one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius)

The macroscopic, radiographic and ultrasonographic anatomy of the carpal region of eight clinically normal camels (Camelus dromedarius) was determined with the help of a 7.5-MHz linear transducer. At the dorsal aspect of the carpus and distal radius, the extensor carpi radialis, extensor digitorum communis and extensor digitorum lateralis tendons were easily identified. The ulnaris lateralis tendon was observed laterally. The extensor carpi obliqus tendon was identified with difficulty. At the palmar aspect, the flexor carpi radialis, the flexor digitorum superficialis and the flexor digitorum profundus tendons were observed. Other soft structures examined include the lateral collateral ligament and the medial collateral ligament. Ultrasonographic findings correlated with gross anatomy in the dissected limbs. The results of the present study serve as reference data for ultrasonographic investigation of disorders of camel carpus.     

Carpal hyperflexion in a growing dog following neural injury to the distal brachium

A three-month-old dobermann was presented with hyperfiexion of the right carpus. The abnormality had evolved over a three-week period, following circumferential soft tissue trauma to the distal brachium. The carpal joint angle measured at the limit of passive extension was 105 degrees compared with 175 degrees for the left carpus, and prevented placement of metacarpal and digital pads on the ground. Neurological examination revealed marked atrophy of the carpal extensors, an absent extensor carpi radialis reflex and moderate atrophy of the carpal flexors. Spontaneous electromyographic activity consistent with denervation was recorded in the carpal extensor and flexor muscles. Surgical exploration of the distal radial nerve disclosed a region of fibrosis enmeshing the deep branch of the radial nerve. Following relief of the entrapped nerve, carpal hyperflexion, muscle atrophy and the extensor carpi radialis reflex deficit gradually resolved over four months. It is suggested that, In the rapidly growing limb, myoneural dysfunction Induced by trauma was the underlying pathophysiological mechanism for carpal hyperflexion.     

Observations on the in vitro behavior of digital tendons

The force/strain behavior of the common and lateral extensor tendons, the extensor branches of the interosseus muscle, and the superficial flexor tendon have been examined in vitro. The flexor tendon acted as a hard-spring with an initial large strain with small load followed by progressively less strain with increasing load, The distal part of the common extensor tendon and the extensor branches behaved in the same manner during dorsiflexion of the fetlock joint/palmar flexion of the coffin joint. The common extensor tendon behaved in a softening manner during palmar flexion of the fetlock and coffin joints while the lateral extensor and the extensor branches behaved in a nearly linear manner.     

RADIOGRAPHIC ASSESSMENT OF CRANIAL CRUCIATE LIGAMENT RUPTURE IN THE DAIRY COW

Case records and radiographs of 37 dairy cows presented to the University of Illinois Veterinary Medicine Teaching Hospital with a diagnosis of cranial cruciate ligament rupture were reviewed. Signalment, history, duration of lameness prior to clinical presentation, and physical examination findings were evaluated. Survey radiographs were examined and radiographic lesions were documented. Individual cows were classified into groups (A, B, C) based on the severity of radiographic lesions, with Group A cows having minimal radiographic lesions. Cows in Groups A and B had radiographic lesions similar to Class I in beef bulls reported in another study.^3,4 An attempt was made to relate the severity of radiographic lesions with age and duration of lameness. Group A animals tended to be younger cows (x?= 4.58 years) with a short duration of lameness. Group B cows were older (x?= 7.87 years) with a somewhat longer duration of lameness. Group C cows were slightly younger (x?= 7.30 years) than Group B cows; however, their duration of lameness was much longer (x?= 57.2 weeks vs 6.35 weeks for Group B and 2.54 weeks for Group A). The pathogenesis of cranial cruciate ligament rupture and its associated lameness appeared to differ in dairy cows from beef bulls. The majority of animals in this study had radiographic lesions of mild to moderate severity (Groups A and B). In contrast, based on previous work, beef bulls had a greater tendency to be similar to our Group C designation. Beef bulls became lame with cranial cruciate ligament rupture only after severe lesions of degenerative joint disease had already occurred. It has been stated that lameness associated with cranial cruciate ligament rupture in the beef bull is, therefore, secondary to degenerative joint disease. In contrast, the syndrome in dairy cows, as evidenced here, differs, since they often presented with cranial cruciate ligament rupture with little or no radiographic evidence of degenerative joint disease.     

Solitary osteochondroma of the radius in three horses

Osteochondroma of the distal portion of the radius was diagnosed in 3 horses with a history of lameness and distention of the common tendon sheath of the superficial and deep digital flexor tendons at the level of the carpal canal. In 2 horses, the exostosis was removed through an incision at the caudal border of the lateral digital extensor muscle above the carpal ligament.     

Tenoscopic Anatomy of the Equine Carpal Flexor Synovial Sheath

Objective —To describe the tenoscopic anatomy of the carpal sheath of the flexor tendons (carpal sheath) viewed from a lateral approach.
Study Design —Tenoscopic observation of structures within the carpal sheath subsequently confirmed by dissection.
Animals or Sample Population—12 equine cadaveric forelimbs.
Methods —The limbs were positioned lateral side up with the carpus slightly flexed. After distention of the carpal sheath, a portal for the arthroscope was made approximately 3 cm proximal to the distal radial physis and 2.5 cm caudal to the radius between the tendons of the ulnaris lateralis and lateral digital extensor muscles.
Results —A lateral tenoscopic approach was adequate to identify all structures within the carpal sheath. From proximal to distal, structures identified using this approach were the radial head of the deep digital flexor muscle, accessory ligament of the tendon of the superficial digital flexor muscle, distal radial physis, tendons of the superficial and deep digital flexor muscles, accessory carpal bone, antebrachiocarpal and middle carpal joints, and vincula of the tendon of the deep digital flexor muscle.
Conclusions —A lateral tenoscopic approach offered an easy, repeatable entry into the carpal sheath and allowed good observation of all structures within the sheath except for the medial borders of the tendons of the deep and superficial digital flexor muscles.
Clinical Relevance —Applications of a lateral tenoscopic approach to the carpal sheath include diagnostic procedures, lavage and synovial resection for septic tenosynovitis, desmotomy of the accessory ligament of the tendon of the superficial digital flexor muscle for flexural deformity or tendinitis, and removal of osteochondromas from the distal radial metaphysis.     

Trypanosomiasis by Trypanosoma vivax in cattle in the Brazilian semiarid: Description of an outbreak and lesions in the nervous system

An outbreak of trypanosomiasis by Trypanosoma vivax is reported in the semiarid of Paraíba, Northeastern Brazil from May to August 2002. Sixty-four cows out of 130 were affected; 11 died and the other recovered after treatment with diminazene aceturate. Affected animals had fever, anemia, weight loss, hypoglycemia, increased serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase and, in nine cows, nervous signs. All cows with nervous signs died; six of them recovered after treatment, but the disease relapsed. Six cows aborted and one delivered a calf that died immediately after parturition. Thirty-two out of 100 calves were affected and five died. Nervous signs were not observed in the calves. Gross lesions were thickening of the meninges, enlarged lymph nodes and prominent white pulp of the spleen. The main histological lesion was meningoencephalitis and malacia in the brain of cows with nervous signs. No antibodies against trypanosomes were found in 33 blood samples collected before the outbreak in the affected farm and in 29 samples collected at the same time in two other neighbor farms. Until January 2003, all 89 animals tested had antibodies against T. vivax, suggesting the occurrence of sub clinical infections in cattle without clinical signs. Only two out of 85 serum samples collected on April 2004 were positive for T. vivax antibodies. Data obtained suggested that the semiarid region is non-endemic for trypanosomiasis and that disease occurred due to introduction of the parasite in a susceptible population after an apparent rise in the Tabanus spp. population.     

Lungworm disease in dairy cattle: symptoms,diagnosis, and pathogenesis on the basis of four case reports

Clinical lungworm disease appears to occur frequently in Dutch dairy herds. Because the clinical diagnosis is difficult to make in adult cattle, the clinical diagnosis, laboratory diagnosis, differential diagnosis, therapy, and prevention are discussed in this article. In addition, four cases of lungworm disease in adult cattle are presented. The main clinical complaints were coughing, decreased milk production, and weight loss. Several lactating cows died in one herd. The disease history of four herds revealed that introduction of susceptible cows or heifers to herds with cows with subclinical patent lungworm infections had resulted in a pasture infection, leading to clinical problems in both the newly introduced and 'resident' cows of the herd. Further history analysis of the fourth herd revealed that re-introduction of lungworm infection by newly purchased cows in a lungworm free herd resulted in clinical lungworm problems in adult and young animals. The fourth case led to the conclusion that lungworm infection must have been re-introduced by cows purchased from another farm.     

Diagnosis of paratuberculosis in a dairy herd native to Brazil

Paratuberculosis (PTB) in Brazil has previously only been reported in imported animals and is officially considered as an exotic disease. A dairy herd, which had no imported animals, presented clinically suspect animals and was investigated for paratuberculosis using faecal culture, histopathology, indirect ELISA and the agar gel immunodiffusion test. Infection with Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (Map) was confirmed by culture of faeces from five cows with clinical symptoms of PTB and in 7/24 randomly selected asymptomatic cows from the same herd. Two cows with clinical symptoms were necropsied and their tissues were positive for Map by culture and histopathology. Twelve asymptomatic, randomly selected cows were positive on ELISA. The results confirmed the presence of PTB in this dairy herd and for the first time demonstrated the disease in a herd of native-bred cattle in Brazil.     

Surgical repair of synovial fistulae between a carpal hygroma,the tendon sheath of the extensor carpi radialis and the antebrachiocarpal joint in a horse

This paper reports the diagnosis and repair of synovial fistulae between a carpal hygroma and both the antebrachiocarpal (ABC) joint and the extensor carpi radialis (ECR) tendon sheath of the left carpus in a 7-year-old gelding. The communication was confirmed using contrast radiography. Arthroscopy visualised the synovial fistulae and aided in the surgical repair. The gelding made a full athletic and acceptable cosmetic recovery.