Tillage practices for soil and water conservation in the semi-arid zone II. Development of the basin-tillage system in wheat fields

In the northern Negev of Israel, a typical semi-arid region with a Mediterranean rainfall pattern, wheat production is limited mainly by the amount of available water. Despite the common occurrence of drought years, storm runoff coefficients for unit areas may reach 30–50% of rainfall. Runoff is the main cause of serious erosion damage consisting of soil loss, gully development and loss of productivity.The system of tied ridges or basin tillage, which effectively eliminated over 90% of runoff and erosion in fallow fields before cotton, appears to be a promising solution to the problem of both soil and water conservation in drilled crops as well. Analysis of the long-term rainfall record of the region and the predicted runoff indicates that the basin-tillage system can decrease runoff by at least 50% as compared with the conventional planting system. Experiments carried out during the 1980–1981 rainy season proved that even in a relatively dry year the basin tillage system was effective in increasing wheat yield by about 50% and eliminating erosion.     

坡耕地土壤水分入渗影响因素分析

介绍了千年生态系统的目的、任务、概念框架、实施过程及服务对象等，并提出了中国应该采取的对策。千年生态系统评估的目的是提高对生态系统的管理水平，为决策者提供信息。其任务是评估生态系统现状、预测生态系统的未来变化、提出对策、在典型地区实施评估计划。     

Applicability of an empirical runoff estimation method in central Greece

In order to assess the water runoff on the sloping cultivated fields of Central Greece, an experiment was carried out from 1997 to 2000. The following treatments were used: three tillage methods, viz. conventional tillage, reduced tillage with heavy cultivator and disk-harrow; two with or without winter cover crop; two parallel and perpendicular to the contour tillage and planting directions.An existing methodology for predicting runoff was evaluated and improved, which is based on the estimation of ponding time for the different tillage systems in the study area under rainfall. An equation predicting the time to ponding was used obtaining data from infiltration experiments using double-cylinder infiltrometers in the field. The surface runoff of each rain storm was estimated by combining the appropriate infiltration equation with the rain intensity data, taking into consideration not only the excess rainfall rate over the infiltration rate, but also the surface detention.Measured runoff was used to test the validity of the USDA-Soil Conservation Service (SCS) curve number method in the region. The results from this test indicated that this prediction runoff method may not be used in the region without the proper modifications to suit the rainfall in the region.The developed model could be used to successfully estimate runoff and erosion in the area. It was found that the combination of equations of time to incipient ponding and the maximum surface storage capacity of topsoil, could explain about 85% of the existing runoff variation.     

降雨类型对褐土横垄坡面土壤侵蚀过程的影响

雨型是影响土壤侵蚀过程的重要因子之一,而影响效应与耕作措施密切相关。目前,雨型对横垄坡面土壤侵蚀过程的影响机制尚不清楚。该文以褐土横垄坡面为研究对象,设计了平均雨强和降雨量相同的4种雨型(增加、减弱、增加-减弱和减弱-增加型),采用可同时调节垄向和坡面坡度的土槽进行模拟降雨,研究各个雨型下不同侵蚀阶段的产流产沙特征。结果表明:雨型间的径流量和侵蚀量在细沟间和细沟侵蚀阶段均差异显著,且差异在细沟阶段体现的更为明显。雨型间径流量的大小顺序为增加-减弱型减弱型减弱-增加型增加型,侵蚀量则为增加-减弱型减弱-增加型减弱型增加型。给定雨强下(30、60或90 mm/h),径流量、径流贡献率和侵蚀量贡献率均随降雨过程中雨强发生时序的延迟而增加,而单位径流侵蚀量呈相反趋势;雨型间给定雨强同一发生时序下的径流量和侵蚀量及其它们对总径流量和总侵蚀量的贡献率均差异显著。4种雨型下,幂函数均能很好的描述细沟间和细沟侵蚀阶段内产沙率与径流率间的关系,且方程中的指数均低于2,但雨型间幂函数方程中的指数存在明显差异。以上研究结果有助于深入理解褐土垄作系统下的土壤侵蚀机理,并为横坡垄作的合理利用提供科学指导。     

黑土区坡耕地横坡垄作措施防治土壤侵蚀的土槽试验

为了研究黑土区坡耕地横坡垄作防治坡面土壤侵蚀的效应,该文利用8 m×1.5 m的试验土槽,设计3个降雨强度(50、75和100 mm/h)、1个典型坡度(5°)以及横坡垄作和无垄作(平坡裸地对照试验)的试验处理进行模拟降雨试验,研究东北黑土区横坡垄作坡面在不同降雨强度下的防治坡面侵蚀效应。结果表明:横坡垄作在50 mm/h降雨强度下坡面基本不发生土壤侵蚀,但在75和100 mm/h降雨强度下会发生断垄,造成防蚀效应急剧降低。横坡垄作坡面的径流和侵蚀过程均明显存在以断垄时间为界的突变,在3个降雨强度下,横坡垄作断垄前可使坡面径流量和侵蚀量分别减少97.7%和99.1%以上,坡面蓄渗率达到97.2%以上;而断垄后坡面径流量和侵蚀量分别增加23.3~25.9倍和136.8~171.5倍,蓄渗率下降至50%以下。试验研究表明横坡垄作在≤50 mm/h的降雨强度下具有很好的坡面防治侵蚀效应,但当遇到强降雨时易发生断垄,防蚀效应急剧降低。     

Tillage practices for soil and water conservation in the semi-arid zone I. Management of fallow during the rainy season preceding cotton

Field and laboratory experiments were conducted on a crusting loess soil in the northern Negev (Israel) with the aim of improving the efficiency of the use of rain by row crops, either in dryland or irrigated farming, and to decrease erosion. The specific objective of the experiments described was to develop methods that enhance infiltration of rainfall during the winter fallow season in an area with a mean annual rainfall of 400 mm which is subject to wide variation.It was found that the traditional tillage system consisting of deep ploughing (35–45 cm) of dry soil in the fall followed by disking, smoothing and ridging is the worst choise as it could result in runoff losses of as much as 60% of the rainfall, accompanied by accelerated erosion. This water loss can be critical to the success of dryland cotton and also determines whether or not a pre-irrigation of about 25% of the total annual water allotment must be given to irrigated cotton.The traditional practice was compared with: deep ploughed land left fallow during the entire rainy season; ridging after subsoiling instead of deep ploughing; subsoiling and ridging carried out in one minimum tillage operation; direct ridging without primary tillage and basin tillage of ridges following either deep ploughing, subsoiling or minimum tillage.This study showed that by far the most effective method for enhancing infiltration and eliminating runoff was the basin tillage system. The method is adaptable both to mechanized farming and to farming based on animal power or manual labour, and its application can ensure success where rainfall is limiting.It was found that laboratory characterization of soil hydraulic properties with a static rainfall simulator allows prediction of runoff on crusting soils. This means that the need for, and the effectiveness of, conservation measures may be estimated using disturbed soil samples, which is quicker and cheaper than field tests.     

The influence of rainfall distribution and morphological factors on runoff delivery from dryland catchments in SE Spain

A simplified theoretical model of storm runoff has been combined with analysis of rainfall records to improve understanding of dryland runoff processes in the Guadalentin catchment of SE Spain, and in particular the decrease in runoff fraction with increasing slope length or catchment area.Estimates of storm runoff volumes can be made using a simple runoff threshold, SCS Curve Numbers, or infiltration equations. A modified Green–Ampt equation is applied here to give storm runoff estimates for conditions of constant effective rainfall intensity. This can be seen as both an improvement on estimates made using the simple runoff threshold, although with no additional parameters, and a good approximation to the SCS Curve Number family of rainfall–runoff relationships, providing an improved theoretical basis for the Curve Number approach and an explicit means of linking it to existing soils data on infiltration and surface properties. The frequency distribution of intensities is examined to determine an appropriate effective intensity in relation to slope length, with a duration long enough to allow overland flow to reach the slope base. Hydrologically Similar Surfaces (HYSS) are defined by local runoff characteristics, and the linkage to infiltration allows an explicit comparison with routing over land areas of different area, shape and topography. This provides the basis for up-scaling from at-a-point runoff to runoff from larger areas which are mapped as belonging to the same HYSS class, explicitly allowing for their different topography and size, providing an essential step in up-scaling data on fine-scale surface characteristics to the response of catchment areas. Here we focus on the ways in which catchment area or slope length influence runoff production within a given HYSS class.Characteristics which drive catchment response include (1) variations in intensity over time through a storm (2) areal variations in storm volume. For measured rainfall in the upper Guadalentin catchment, SE Spain, the first of these factors is seen to be the most important for catchments of up to 500 km², and a procedure is suggested for deriving effective rainfalls from recorded intensity data. The rainfall data can then be combined with a HYSS analysis of the soil/land use response, and analyses of catchment network morphology and connectivity to forecast the heterogeneous distribution of ephemeral stream runoff.     

黄土区不同土地经营方式径流量神经网络模拟

基于黄土坡面降雨—径流关系的复杂性和非线性,引用3层前馈型BP网络模型,对不同土地经营方式(草灌地、刈割地、翻耕地)径流量进行模拟,以植被盖度、降雨强度、坡度、土壤前期含水率和土壤容重5个因子作为输入层变量,次降雨下径流量作为输出层变量。利用野外人工模拟降雨试验所得到的不同降雨强度下各类土地经营径流小区的径流量实测资料,对网络进行模拟训练并预测,径流量平均误差不超过10%,且径流量较大的翻耕地训练精度及预测结果较草灌地、刈割准确性更高些。与传统回归统计方法进行了误差比较,结果表明,该模型能更好地预测次降雨的径流量。     

Effects of intra-storm variations in rainfall intensity on interrill runoff and erosion

Five simulated rainstorms, each with a different rainfall intensity pattern but all delivering the same total kinetic energy to the soil surface, were applied to three different soils in a laboratory flume. The storm patterns were: constant rainfall intensity, increasing intensity, decreasing intensity, increasing then decreasing intensity and decreasing then increasing intensity. The three soils were: a clay loam, a sandy loam and a sandy soil. No differences in total runoff were observed that were consistent across the three soil types. However, consistent differences were observed in the amount and size distribution of the eroded sediment. In particular, the constant-intensity storm yielded an average soil loss of 75% of the varying-intensity storms, and the eroded sediment from the constant-intensity storms had a lower clay content than that from the varying-intensity storms. In contrast to the differences in amount and size distribution of eroded sediment, splashed sediment exhibited much smaller differences. Interrill erosion rates are widely assumed to vary with rainfall intensity to the power 2, but this relationship has been obtained from experiments over a range of rainfall intensities, but in which rainfall intensity has been constant in each experiment. The experiments reported here, undertaken using variable rainfall intensity within each experiment, indicates an exponent of 2.55. The experiments demonstrate that the assumption that a given rainfall intensity falling on a given soil for a given amount of time will result in a given amount of runoff and erosion is unsound. They point to the need for a greater understanding of the processes of interrill sediment detachment and transport in order to model successfully erosion under temporally varying rainfall.     

等高耕作对不同坡度坡面土壤侵蚀过程的影响

等高耕作是一种典型的农业耕作措施,通过影响坡面填洼、入渗等进而影响坡耕地坡面土壤侵蚀过程。通过人工模拟降雨试验,设计降雨强度(90 mm/h)、5个地表坡度(3°,5°,10°,15°,20°)以及2种坡面处理(等高耕作和平整坡面),对径流强度、侵蚀率、径流含沙量、减流减沙效益等指标进行综合对比分析,与平整坡面进行比较,探究了黄土高原坡耕地等高耕作措施对坡面土壤侵蚀过程的影响。结果表明：(1)与平整坡面相比,等高耕作明显延缓坡面初始产流时间,使初始产流时间延迟11.58～31.91 min,随着坡度增大,等高耕作初始产流时间延长效应逐渐减弱。(2)等高耕作具有削弱径流强度和侵蚀率的作用,与平整坡面相比,等高耕作的坡面径流强度、侵蚀率和径流含沙量分别减少11.77%～94.92%,20.69%～99.27%和2.46%～88.40%。但等高耕作减少产流产沙能力有限,若坡面发生断垄,等高耕作坡面的径流强度、侵蚀率、径流含沙量都可能接近或大于平整坡面。(3)在降雨过程中,累计产沙量与累计径流量之间满足线性正相关关系,等高耕作累计产沙量随累计径流量的增大幅度始终小于平整坡面。(4)等高耕作在不...     

基于人工模拟降雨试验的垄作区田水土保持效益的变化研究

[目的]研究垄作区田在不同降雨条件下发生溢流和损毁的情况和水土保持效益的变化,为实施垄作区田的适宜条件评价和水土保持效益的评价提供依据。[方法]对垄作区田和顺垄耕作实施不同雨强的人工模拟降雨实验,分析二者的产流产沙过程和水土保持效益变化。[结果]雨强大于60mm/h时,区田有溢流产生,但土档不会损毁,水土保持效益略有降低;雨强大于60mm/h时,区田土档在溢流后很快损毁,水土保持效益有明显的下降。区田未损毁情况下的蓄水效益为87.5%,保土效益为88.2%;区田损毁后的蓄水效益降至34.1%,保土效益降至21.0%。[结论]垄作区田在60mm/h雨强下具有良好的水土保持效益,超过60mm/h时,由于土档在溢流后容易损毁,从而使其水土保持效益显著下降,丧失了拦蓄径流和泥沙的能力。     

玉米生长期坡耕地地表径流及侵蚀产沙特征

为了弄清玉米生长过程中侵蚀动态变化,该文采用人工模拟降雨与微小区相结合的方法,研究了紫色土区不同耕作措施对坡耕地地表径流及侵蚀产沙的影响。结果表明:在雨强1.0 mm/min条件下,平作坡面在种植前径流量最小,横坡垄作坡面在拔节期—抽雄期坡面径流量最小。在雨强1.5 mm/min条件下,横坡垄作坡面在玉米拔节期—抽雄期径流量最小。在雨强2.0 mm/min条件下,横坡垄作坡面在玉米苗期—拔节期坡面径流量最小。在雨强为1 mm/min和1.5 mm/min条件下,不同耕作措施坡面在玉米的抽雄期—成熟期产流时间最短,在雨强为2.0 mm/min条件下,不同耕作措施坡面在苗期—拔节期产流时间最短。这一研究成果可为区域水土流失有效防治提供理论依据。     

土壤翻耕对坡地水分转化与产流产沙特征的影响

坡耕地严重的水土流失是导致黄土高原土壤质量退化与生态环境恶化的重要原因。采用模拟降雨的方法研究了翻耕与压实对休闲黄绵土坡耕地水分转化与产流产沙特征的影响。结果表明，(1)与压实相比，土壤翻耕导致入渗率下降40%～60%，产流强度增加1至3倍，降雨向土壤水分的转化率降低50％以上。(2)翻耕条件下流失径流的平均含沙量增加近70％，坡地产沙量增加3倍，径流流失量增加1倍，因此对坡地实行免耕休闲可以有效减轻水土流失、遏制坡地土壤质量退化的态势。(3)降雨过程中，随着产流时间的延长，坡地产沙量呈加速增加的趋势，而且增加速度显著快于坡面径流，因此采取适当措施延长初始产流时间、减少产流量以及提高降雨向土壤水分的转化率均可有效减少坡地土壤流失量。     

不同耕作措施下成熟期玉米对径流及侵蚀产沙的影响

采用野外人工模拟降雨的方法,开展不同耕作措施下成熟期玉米对坡面产流及产沙影响的研究。结果表明:不同雨强下,种植玉米各措施径流量和产流强度都要小于相应的对照。在雨强为1.0,2.0mm/min下,平作措施径流量最小;在雨强为1.5mm/min下横坡措施径流量最小;在雨强为1.5mm/min下,平作措施和顺坡措施径流量达最大。在雨强为1.0mm/min下各措施含沙量均最小;在雨强为1.5mm/min下平作措施含沙量达最大;在雨强为2.0mm/min下横坡和顺坡措施含沙量最大。不同雨强下,平作、顺坡耕作、横坡耕作和对照小区产流产沙过程均呈波动变化,平作、顺坡耕作和横坡耕作的产流时间均较对照小区延后。     

Tillage methods and soil and water conservation in eastern Africa

This paper reviews some research studies on tillage methods influencing soil and moisture conservation in the eastern African countries of Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi and Ethiopia during the past four decades. Most of these studies were conducted in marginal rainfall (semi arid) areas and on shallow soils of various textures (sandy clay loam, sandy clay, clay and loam). The studies were meant to establish the effects of tillage and residue management practices on physico-chemical soil properties (i.e. structure, bulk density, soil moisture and organic matter contents), runoff and infiltration.

This review emphasizes the importance of appropriate tillage and residue management methods (contour bunds and terraces, minimum tillage, tied ridging, mulching and conventional tillage) in providing soil conditions favourable for soil moisture conservation and subsequent crop performance and yield on smallholder farms.     

Effects of tillage and traffic on crop production in dryland farming systems: II. Long-term simulation of crop production using the PERFECT model

Soil water conservation is critical to long-term crop production in dryland cropping areas in Northeast Australia. Many field studies have shown the benefits of controlled traffic and zero tillage in terms of runoff and soil erosion reduction, soil moisture retention and crop yield improvement. However, there is lack of understanding of the long-term effect of the combination of controlled traffic and zero tillage practices, as compared with other tillage and traffic management practices.In this study, a modeling approach was used to estimate the long-term effect of tillage, traffic, crop rotation and type, and soil management practices in a heavy clay soil. The PERFECT soil–crop simulation model was calibrated with data from a 5-year field experiment in Northeast Australia in terms of runoff, available soil water and crop yield; the procedure and outcomes of this calibration were given in a previous contribution. Three cropping systems with different tillage and traffic treatments were simulated with the model over a 44-year-period using archived weather data.Results showed higher runoff, and lower soil moisture and crop production with conventional tillage and accompanying field traffic than with controlled traffic and zero tillage. The effect of traffic is greater than the effect of tillage over the long-term. The best traffic, tillage and crop management system was controlled traffic zero tillage in a high crop intensity rotation, and the worst was conventional traffic and stubble mulch with continuous wheat. Increased water infiltration and reduced runoff under controlled traffic resulted in more available soil water and higher crop yield under opportunity cropping systems.     

Rainstorm pattern effects on the size distribution of soil aggregate in eroded sediment within contour ridge systems

Purpose

Intra-storm temporal distributions of rainfall intensity (storm patterns) greatly affect soil erosion process within flat tillage systems, but limited information is available about its influence on the distribution characteristics of soil aggregate, especially within contour ridge system.

Materials and methods

In this study, a laboratory study of 12 rainfall simulation experiments was conducted to analyze the loss characteristic of 16 sizes aggregate in eroded sediment within contour ridge system under the rising, falling, rising–falling, and falling–rising patterns. All patterns included three rainfall intensities, 30, 60, and 90 mm h^?1, and comprised the same rainfall amount and kinetic energy.

Results and discussion

The results showed that storm patterns showed significant influence on soil aggregate loss. The rising–falling, falling–rising, and falling pattern had 1.43, 1.11, and 1.04 times soil aggregate loss greater than the rising pattern, respectively. Differences in size distribution of soil aggregate among storm patterns mainly concentrated on the most eroded size of microaggregate, especially 50–100 μm fraction. An intensity of 30 mm h^?1 made the greatest contribution of 100.87%–511.93% to the diversity of soil aggregate loss following the storm pattern simulations relative to 60 and 90 mm h^?1 intensities, likely resulting from erosion process, soil aggregate detachment, and runoff transport abilities from 30 mm h^?1 intensity varying within storm pattern duration. The occurring periods of rainfall intensity significantly affected the loss of each size aggregate and showed the most obvious influence on 50–100 μm aggregate. Effects of storm pattern and rainfall intensity occurring periods were more pronounced with the increase of aggregate size at the macro-aggregate scale. Contour failure was easily to occur under the most prevalent storm pattern—falling and rising–falling patterns—which comprised 59.44% of soil aggregate loss.

Conclusions

Results recommended that more attention should be given to contour ridge stability, especially under falling and rising–falling patterns. Incorporating contour failure and the occurring context of rainfall intensity into the erosion model could successfully simulate soil aggregate loss characteristics, especially small-sized aggregates.

     

Water balance simulation of a dryland soil during fallow under conventional and conservation tillage in semiarid Aragon, Northeast Spain

In Central Aragon, winter cereal is sown in the autumn (November–December), commonly after a 16–18 months fallow period aimed at conserving soil water. This paper uses the Simple Soil–Plant–Atmosphere Transfer (SiSPAT) model, in conjunction with field data, to study the effect of long fallowing on the soil water balance under three tillage management systems (conventional tillage, CT; reduced tillage, RT; and no-tillage, NT). This was on the assumption that soil properties would remain unchanged during the entire fallow season. Once the model was validated with data obtained before primary tillage implementation, the differences between simulated and observed soil water losses for the CT and RT treatments could be interpreted as the direct effect of the soil tillage system. The model was calibrated and validated in a long-term tillage experiment using data from three contrasting long-fallow seasons over the period 1999–2002, where special attention was paid to predicting soil hydraulic properties in the pre-tillage conditions. The capacity of the model to simulate the soil water balance and its components over long fallowing was demonstrated. Both the fallow rainfall pattern and the tillage management system affected the soil water budget and components predicted by the model. The model predicted that about 81% of fallow seasonal rainfall is lost by evaporation in long-fallow periods with both a dry autumn in the first year of fallow and a rainfall above normal in spring. Whereas, when the fallow season is characterised by a wet autumn during the first year of fallow the model predicted a decrease in soil water evaporation and an increase in water storage and deep drainage components. In this case, the predicted water lost by evaporation was higher under NT (64%) than under RT (56%) and CT (44%). The comparison between measured and simulated soil water loss showed that the practice of tillage decreased soil water conservation in the short term. The long-term analysis of the soil water balance showed that, in fallow periods with a wet autumn during the first year of fallow, the soil water loss measured under CT and RT was moderately greater than that predicted by the model.     

不同耕作措施对黑土坡耕地土壤侵蚀的影响

针对黑龙江省西部半干旱区土壤流失情况,在坡耕地径流小区通过野外人工模拟降雨试验,研究不同降雨强度、不同耕作措施下降雨产沙产流特征和过程。试验结果表明:降雨强度越大,对地表径流量和侵蚀量的影响越大,即雨强与径流量和泥沙量呈正相关,各种耕作措施的土壤流失顺序是顺坡垄裸地>横坡垄裸地>等高种植地>深松地>秸杆覆盖地>垄向区田地,植被覆盖地能有效控制水土流失,垄向区田地是这几种耕作措施中减少坡耕地水土流失的有效措施。     

Runoff and soil loss from bench terraces. 1. An event-based model of rainfall infiltration and surface runoff

Overland flow resulting from an excess of rain over infiltration is an essential component of many models of runoff and erosion from fields or catchments. The spatially variable infiltration (SVI) model and a set of associated equations relating depth of runoff and maximum rate of ‘effective’ runoff (as used in the GUEST erosion model) to storm depth, depth‐averaged intensity of rainfall, average maximum infiltration capacity and an additional amount of initial infiltration were validated and tested on back‐sloping bench terraces in volcanic upland West Java, Indonesia. Data used were runoff rate and depth from 31 small (1.0–8.2 m²) bounded plots representing sections of terrace beds or risers and from six larger (53–231 m²) terrace units with hydrologically defined boundaries. Modelled runoff rates using rainfall intensity data corresponded well with observed patterns and the storm‐based equations were used successfully to model runoff depths and maximum effective runoff rates for individual events. Resulting values for maximum average infiltration rate (I_m) varied between 18 and 443 mm hour^?1 and reflected effects of vegetation or mulch cover and soil compaction. We conclude that the SVI model and the derived equations provide a robust and accurate method for predicting runoff at the investigated scale.