Changes in molecular structure of biodegradable plastics during degradation in soils estimated by FT-IR and NMR

Among the biodegradable plastic specimens (poly-(3-hydroxy-butylate-valerate) (PHB / V), poly-(ε-caprolactone) (PCL), poly-(butylene succinate) (PBS), poly-(butylene succinate and adipate) (PBSA), and poly-lactide (PLA)) that were placed in soils for 1 year at nineteen sites in Japan, plastic specimens with appreciable biodegradation were studied for the transformation of the chemical structure by FT-IR, ¹H-NMR, and ¹³C-NMR. No appreciable differences in the main absorbency-bands of the atomic groups were recognized by FT-IR for any of the plastic specimens tested. However, both ¹H-NMR and ¹³C-NMR analyses suggested that molecular structure of the PHB / V specimens changed after 1 year placement in soils. Based on the assignment of the respective signals of chemical shifts derived from valerate, selective degradation of the valerate moiety in the PHB / V specimens was observed. In contrast, although weight loss, and/or a decrease in tensile strength and elongation were observed after the placement in soils for the PCL, PBS, PBSA, and PLA specimens, the analyses of these specimens by FT-IR, ¹H-NMR, and ¹³C-NMR did not reveal any changes in their molecular structure.     

Representativeness of extracts of offset paper packaging and analysis of the main odor-active compounds

Packagings often carry odors due to the support and printing inks. The aim of the investigation was to define a representative solvent-free extract of paper-based packaging materials printed by the offset process, for the identification of the odor-causing volatile compounds. Static headspace and solid-phase microextraction were the two applied extraction methods. Representativeness tests showed that the odor of the PDMS fiber extract gave satisfying odor similarities with the original packaging. The sample incubation was performed at 40 degrees C for 30 min, whereas the extraction time was 3 min at 40 degrees C. Extracts of both the nonprinted and printed papers of different batches were analyzed by gas chromatography-olfactometry. 4-Phenylcyclohexene was identified as the most potent compound contributing to the latex-like odor of the nonprinted paper. Among the 13 major odorants identified by mass spectrometry, 10 were aldehydes and ketones generated by oxidation of the printing ink resins. The ratio of odorants to interferences was too low for a possible detection of the key odorants by nonseparative techniques such as sensor arrays.     

Permeation of oxygen, water vapor, and limonene through printed and unprinted biaxially oriented polypropylene films.

Oriented polypropylene (OPP) and coated OPP (acrylic/OPP/PVDC) films were printed with two commercially available inks to investigate the influence of inks on water vapor and oxygen transmission rates. The permeation of an aroma compound (d-limonene) through coated OPP film printed with these inks was also evaluated at 35 degrees C and 100% relative humidity. The water vapor transmission rate increased significantly through OPP film printed with nitrocellulose-based ink. The oxygen transmission rate was significantly lower through both OPP and coated OPP films printed with the nitrocellulose ink. The effect of inks on limonene permeation was minor compared to the marked increase in permeation measured when the PVDC side of the coated film was exposed to the aroma, compared to the acrylic side. Scanning electron micrographs of coated film cross sections revealed changes in film structure upon exposure to limonene vapors, which were most pronounced when the PVDC side was exposed to limonene.     

Tillage and cover effects on soil microbial properties and fluometuron degradation

This research concerns the influence of no tillage (NT) or conventional tillage (CT) and a ryegrass (Lolium multiforum Lam.) cover crop in a cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) production system on soil and ryegrass microbial counts, enzyme activities, and fluometuron degradation. Fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis, aryl acylamidase, and colony-forming units (CFUs) of total bacteria and fungi, gram-negative bacteria, and fluorescent pseudomonads were determined in soil and ryegrass samples used in the degradation study. Fluometuron (14C-labelled herbicide) degradation was evaluated in the laboratory using soil and ryegrass. The CT and NT plots with a ryegrass cover crop maintained greater microbial populations in the upper 2 cm compared to their respective no-cover soils, and CT soils with ryegrass maintained greater bacterial and fungal CFUs in the 2–10 cm depth compared to the other soils The highest enzymatic activity was found in the 0–2 cm depth of soils with ryegrass compared to their respective soils without ryegrass. Ryegrass residues under NT maintained several hundred-fold greater CFUs than the respective underlying surface soils. Fluometuron degradation in soil and ryegrass residues proceeded through sequential demethylation and incorporation of residues into nonextractable components. The most rapid degradation was observed in surface (0 to 2 cm) soil from CT and NT–ryegrass plots. However, degradation occurred more rapidly in CT compared to NT soils in the 2 to 10 cm depth. Ryegrass cover crop systems, under NT or incorporated under CT, stimulated microbiological soil properties and promoted herbicide degradation in surface soils.     

Effects of soil temperature and anaerobiosis on degradation of biodegradable plastics in soil and their degrading microorganisms

The bioplastic PHB/HV (copolymer of 3-hydroxybutyrate and 3-hydroxyvalerate) underwent a faster degradation at 30°C than at 52°C in soil under aerobic conditions, while there was no remarkable difference between 30°C and 52°C in the degradation rate of PCL [poly(ε-caprolactone)], PBSA (polybutylene succinate and agipate), and PBS (polybutylene succinate). PHB showed the fastest degree of degradation among the four plastics at 30°C and PBSA the fastest at 52°C. Degradation of all the four plastics was nor observed both at 30°C and 52°C under anaerobic conditions for 50 d. Microorganisms on the degrading plastics appeared to be diverse at 30"C, including bacteria and fungi. However, among the several to ca. 10 kinds of bacterial and fungal strains isolated from the degradation sites of each plastic at 30°C, only one or two fungal strains were able to degrade the respective plastics in vitro. The degraders were identified as Mucor sp. (PHB), Paecilomyces sp. (PCL), Aspergillus sp. (PBSA), and Cunninghamella sp. (PBSA). In contrast, only a single type of fungus was observed at the degradation sites of PCL and PBSA at 52°C. The fungus isolated from PCL and PBSA was identified as Thermomyces sp. This study demonstrated that soil temperature and anaerobiosis exerted significant effects on the degradation of the plastics, and that fungi were mainly responsible for the degradation of the plastics in soil.     

Tillage and cropping effects on selected properties of an Argiudoll in Argentina

Abstract

Soils of the Argentine humid pampa region are usually weakly structured due to its high silt content. Selecting crop sequence or tillage systems are an alternative in small farms for the protection of the soil against physical degradation and erosion given that conservation practices, grass meadows, and fertilizers are expensive and therefore rarely used. Evaluation of selected soil properties was conducted on soil sampled from a long‐term tillage experiment with continuous soybean established in 1975 on a Typic Argiudoll silty loam soil in Argentina. Tillage treatments included conventional tillage with moldboard plow (CT), chisel plow (CP), and no till (NT). A comparison with continuous corn under NT was also carried out. Sampling was performed after the emergence of both crops in 1990. Tillage and cropping treatments affected properties related to soil slacking and dispersion to a greater extent than they did on aggregate size distribution. According to the De Leenheer and De Boodt index, aggregate stability within soybean soil classified as bad for CT, unsatisfactory for CP, and very good for NT, whereas the soil with corn under NT classified as excellent. The no tillage treatment within soybean had significantly more organic carbon in the 0–5 cm depth than CP or CT. Soil respiration was significantly higher in NT than in CT in the surface layer, while CT showed higher values in the 10–15 cm depth. Tillage treatments did not significantly affect microbial biomass under soybean cropping. The effect of monoculture corn versus monoculture soybean under NT on soil respiration, biomass and organic carbon was not significant. Soil pH in the 0–5 cm depth under soybean was in the order NT > CP > CT, whereas the soil with corn under NT was more acid than the soybean soil (P=0.05). Cation exchange capacity and exchangeable bases followed a similar trend. Organic carbon (0–5 cm depth) and aggregate stability were significantly correlated when samples from all treatments were considered.     

Ambient ionization-accurate mass spectrometry (AMI-AMS) for the identification of nonvisible set-off in food-contact materials

Set-off is the unintentional transfer of substances used in printing from the external printed surface of food packaging to the inner, food-contact surface. Ambient ionization-accurate mass spectrometry (AMI-AMS) detected and identified compounds from print set-off not visible to the human eye. AMI mass spectra from inner and outer surfaces of printed and nonprinted food packaging were compared to detect and identify nonvisible set-off components. A protocol to identify unknowns was developed using a custom open-source database of printing inks and food-packaging compounds. The protocol matched print-related food-contact surface ions with the molecular formulas of common ions, isotopes, and fragments of compounds from the database. AMI-AMS was able to detect print set-off and identify seven different compounds. Set-off on the packaging samples was confirmed using gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric (GC-MS) analysis of single-sided solvent extracts. N-Ethyl-2(and 4)-methylbenzenesulfonamide, 2,4-diphenyl-4-methyl-1(and 2)-pentene, and 2,4,7,9-tetramethyl-5-decyne-4,7-diol were present on the food-contact layer at concentrations from 0.21 to 2.7 ± 1.6 μg dm?2, corresponding to nearly milligram per kilogram concentrations in the packaged food. Other minor set-off compounds were detected only by AMI-AMS, a fast, simple, and thorough technique to detect and identify set-off in food packaging.     

Biodegradation of chloroacetamide herbicides by Paracoccus sp. FLY-8 in vitro

A butachlor-degrading strain, designated FLY-8, was isolated from rice field soil and was identified as Paracoccus sp. Strain FLY-8 could degrade and utilize six chloroacetamide herbicides as carbon sources for growth, and the degradation rates followed the order alachlor > acetochlor > propisochlor > butachlor > pretilachlor > metolachlor. The influence of molecular structure of the chloroacetamide herbicides on the microbial degradation rate was first analyzed; the results indicated that the substitutions of alkoxymethyl side chain with alkoxyethyl side chain greatly reduced the degradation efficiencies; the length of amide nitrogen's alkoxymethyl significantly affected the biodegradability of these herbicides: the longer the alkyl was, the slower the degradation efficiencies occurred. The phenyl alkyl substituents have no obvious influence on the degradation efficiency. The pathway of butachlor complete mineralization was elucidated on the basis of the results of metabolite identification and enzyme assays. Butachlor was degraded to alachlor by partial C-dealkylation and then converted to 2-chloro-N-(2,6-dimethylphenyl)acetamide by N-dealkylation, which subsequently transformed to 2,6-diethylaniline, which was further degraded via the metabolites aniline and catechol, and catechol was oxidized through an ortho-cleavage pathway. This study highlights an important potential use of strain FLY-8 for the in situ bioremediation of chloroacetamide herbicides and their metabolite-contaminated environment.     

Composting of Silicone Polymer Under Different Moisture Conditions,and with the Addition of Various Amounts of Soil

Silicone polymers (polydimethylsiloxanes, or PDMS) are used in many down-the-drain consumer products and thus enter wastewater treatment facilities, after which they can be composted with the resulting sludge. Our previous experiments showed that PDMS would not harm the composting process, and although it does not degrade in moist compost, it will degrade (60% in 4 months) after compost is added to soil. The present experiment investigates the fate of PDMS in compost which is allowed to dry to various extents. PDMS (350 cst) was added to moist compost to yield 2000 mg PDMS/kg of (dry weight) compost. Compost (180 g dry weight) was mixed with moist soil (either 0, 18, or 54 g dry weight) and 30 g (dry weight) of microcrystalline cellulose. Samples were incubated at 58°C for one month using four different moisture regimes, varying from continuously moist to dry. The release of CO₂ from cellulose degradation was monitored as an indication of microbial activity in the four moisture regimes. After incubations were completed, compost samples were extracted and assayed for evidence of PDMS degradation. PDMS degradation increased with increasing severity of compost drying. Little degradation (>90% recovery) was found in continuously moist samples, while samples exposed to partial drying/rewetting showed 40-90% recovery. Dry samples had 20-30% recovery. Some (maximum <13%) degradation products (mostly dimethylsilanediol) were found, but the majority had biodegraded or volatilized. The addition of soil had little effect on PDMS degradation, and the compost itself was active enough to degrade PDMS.     

In situ and potential CO2 evolution from a Fluventic Ustochrept in southcentral Texas as affected by tillage and cropping intensity

Quality of agricultural soils is largely a function of soil organic matter. Tillage and crop management impact soil organic matter dynamics by modification of the soil environment and quantity and quality of C input. We investigated changes in pools and fluxes of soil organic C (SOC) during the ninth and tenth year of cropping with various intensities under conventional disk-and-bed tillage (CT) and no tillage (NT). Soil organic C to a depth of 0.2 m increased with cropping intensity as a result of greater C input and was 10% to 30% greater under NT than under CT. Sequestration of crop-derived C input into SOC was 22±2% under NT and 9±4% under CT (mean of cropping intensities ± standard deviation of cropping systems). Greater sequestration of SOC under NT was due to a lower rate of in situ soil CO₂ evolution than under CT (0.22±0.03 vs. 0.27±0.06 g CO₂–C g⁻¹ SOC yr⁻¹). Despite a similar labile pool of SOC under NT than under CT (1.1±0.1 vs. 1.0±0.1 g mineralizable C kg⁻¹ SOC d⁻¹), the ratio of in situ to potential CO₂ evolution was less under NT (0.56±0.03) than under CT (0.73±0.08), suggesting strong environmental controls on SOC turnover, such as temperature, moisture, and residue placement. Both increased C sequestration and a greater labile SOC pool were achieved in this low-SOC soil using NT and high-intensity cropping.     

Effects of zone-tillage in rotation with no-tillage on soil properties and crop yields in a semi-arid soil from central Spain

A limiting factor to the no-tillage system in arid and semi-arid regions is the possibility of soil densification from lack of tillage. This research examines the extent and duration of the effects of periodic (rotational) zone-tillage over 2 years, on selected soil physical and chemical properties and crop yields. In the first year four tillage treatments were applied: conventional tillage with mouldboard plow (CT), minimum tillage with chisel plow (MT), no-tillage (NT) and zone-tillage subsoiling with a paraplow (ZT). In the second year, the ZT plots were returned to NT to follow the residual effects of ZT. The soil was a loamy sand (Calcic Haploxeralf) from semi-arid Central Spain and the crop rotation was grey pea (Pisum sativum L.)–barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). Crop residues on the soil surface after sowing grey pea were 85% in NT plots, 55% in ZT plots and 15% in MT plots. When comparing NT and ZT, the immediate effects of subsoiling on soil physical properties were significant (P < 0.05). Soil strength as measured by cone index approached 3.0 MPa in NT and was reduced to <1.0 MPa by ZT over 300 mm sampling depth. Soil moisture content and bulk density were improved by ZT. No-till and ZT favoured surface accumulation of soil organic carbon (SOC), total N and available P and K. Stratification ratio of SOC was not different among tillage systems, but soil N stratification ratio followed the order NT > ZT > MT > CT. Grey pea yields were reduced by 3 Mg ha⁻¹ in the NT and MT compared with ZT. Crop residues on the soil surface after barley sowing were 80% in NT, 56% in ZT, and 12% in MT. At the end of the second year, soil strength, soil moisture and bulk density in ZT declined to NT levels at all soil depths. The positive effect of ZT in increasing SOC in the top layer had also disappeared. However, total N, and available P and K concentrations under NT and ZT were still significantly higher than in MT and CT. Stratification ratios of SOC under NT and ZT were >2 and more than two-fold those under MT and CT. Nitrogen stratification ratio under ZT increased and no significant differences between NT and ZT could be reported. Barley yield was 0.6 Mg ha⁻¹ higher in ZT compared with NT. Our results suggest that ZT improved the physical and chemical condition of the soil studied in months following subsoiling. These positive effects, however, diminished with time and only some residual effects on total N and available P and K content in the top-layer were still evident after 2 years.     

Least limiting water range: A potential indicator of changes in near-surface soil physical quality after the conversion of Brazilian Savanna into pasture

The Brazilian savanna, or “Cerrado”, is an ecosystem that originally covered more than 200 Mha in Brazil. It is estimated that about 49.5 Mha in the Cerrado are now covered with cultivated pastures, which are responsible for half of Brazilian beef production. However, soil and pasture degradation represent a threat to this productive system and to the Cerrado ecosystem itself. Thus, the objective of this research was to evaluate the least limiting water range (LLWR) as an index of near-surface soil physical quality after conversion of Brazilian savanna to continuous and short-duration grazing systems. Three sites were evaluated: native Cerrado (NC), continuous grazing (CG), and short-duration grazing (SG). Thirty soil cores (5 cm height, 5 cm diameter) were collected at each site, and used for soil bulk density, soil water retention curve, and soil penetration resistance curve determinations. The results were used for quantification of LLWR and critical bulk density (D_bc), in which LLWR equals zero. The near-surface soil physical quality, as evaluated by the LLWR, was most restrictive for potential root growth in SG. In CG, potential restriction was moderate; however, the entire soil bulk density range was below the D_bc. In NC, potential restriction was minimum. The soil structural degradation process was primarily related to the increase in stocking rates in the grazing systems. The LLWR proved to be a useful indicator of Cerrado soil physical quality, being sensitive to alterations in near-surface physical properties.     

Biodegradability Improvement of Sulfamethazine Solutions by Means of an electro-Fenton Process

The main objective of this study was to examine the effect of an electro-Fenton pretreatment on the biodegradability of sulfamethazine-polluted solutions. The aim of the pretreatment was only to degrade this molecule in order to increase the biodegradability of the effluent and therefore allow a subsequent biological treatment. Preliminary tests showed the absence of biodegradability of the target compound. The degradation of sulfamethazine by electro-Fenton process was then examined using a carbon felt cathode and a platinum anode in an electrochemical reactor containing 1?L of solution. The influence of some experimental parameters such as initial concentration, temperature and current intensity on the degradation by electro-Fenton step has been investigated. In addition, the biodegradability of the solution after electrochemical pretreatment was examined and showed a Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD₅) on Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) ratio above the limit of biodegradability, namely 0.4, for several experimental conditions. The feasibility of coupling an electro-Fenton pretreatment with a biological degradation of by-products in order to mineralize polluted solutions of sulfamethazine was confirmed.     

不同轮耕方式对渭北旱塬麦玉轮作田土壤物理性状与产量的影响

为研究不同轮作模式对渭北旱作冬小麦?春玉米一年1熟轮作田土壤物理性状和产量的影响,于2007—2014年在陕西省合阳县冬小麦?春玉米轮作田连续7年实施了保护性耕作定位试验,测定和分析了免耕/深松、深松/翻耕、翻耕/免耕、连续免耕、连续深松和连续翻耕6种轮耕模式下麦田0~60 cm土层物理性状、0~200 cm土层土壤湿度和小麦产量的变化。结果表明:1)不同轮耕模式0~40 cm土层土壤容重、孔隙度和田间持水量差异显著,其中以免耕/深松效果最显著;0~60 cm土层免耕/深松轮耕处理平均田间持水量较连续翻耕处理提高12.9%;2)轮耕对土壤团聚体特性影响明显,免耕/深松0.25 mm水稳性团聚体含量(R0.25)最高,结构体破碎率和不稳定团粒指数(ELT)最低,水稳性均重直径(WMWD)最高,水稳性和力稳性团聚体分形维数(D)均最低;3)小麦生育期间免耕/深松处理0~200 cm土层土壤蓄水量和小麦产量较连续翻耕分别增加17.7 mm和9.5%。综合可知,轮耕有利于耕层土壤物理结构改善,免耕/深松更有利于耕层土壤大团聚体形成和土壤结构稳定,利于土壤蓄水保墒和作物增产,为渭北旱塬区麦玉轮作田较适宜的轮耕模式。     

Diesel oil consumption,work duration,and crop production of corn and durum wheat under conventional and no-tillage in southeastern France

In no-tillage (NT) system, precedent crop residue retains on the soil surface to preserve soil water for crop growth. In response to the negative impact of soil degradation under conventional tillage (CT) system based on soil tillage, NT system without tillage practice and with protective cover of crop residue is being developed in many parts of the world. However, NT is a successful system especially in the South of America, but the impacts of this system on the Mediterranean climate especially in the southeast (SE) of France is less known; therefore, this study has been carried out within the scope of a European project. Durum wheat and corn were sown under CT and NT. Time requirement and fuel consumption in these two systems were measured. The results showed that durum wheat and corn yields were the same in both systems except of 2008, while work duration and energy requirement were 87% and 83% lower in NT system, respectively. Furthermore, NT could mitigate CO₂ emission up to 50% as compared with CT. These results show that NT can be considered as a relevant alternative for CT regarding economical and environmental advantages.     

连续14年黑土坡耕地秸秆覆盖免耕水土保持效应

为探究长期秸秆覆盖免耕对黑土坡耕地土壤结构的影响以及水土保持效应,通过秸秆覆盖免耕(NT)和传统顺坡耕作(CT)2组长期定位田间试验,对土壤结构、土壤保水能力、保土效应作对比分析。结果表明:NT与CT相应性状比较,土壤容重没有显著增加(P＞0.05),在0—20 cm土层,虽总孔隙度和非毛管孔隙度低,但增加了土壤毛管孔隙度和水稳性大团聚体(WR_0.25)含量,WR_0.25含量和平均重量直径(MWD)差异均达到显著水平(P＜0.05);分别提高了垄台土壤初始入渗和稳定入渗速率28.8%,24.7%;0—10 cm土层,饱和含水量和田间持水量差异均达到显著水平(P＜0.05);减少了产流次数、径流量和土壤流失量分别为11次,86.6%和98.9%,有效地遏制了水土流失。研究结果表明,长期连续秸秆覆盖免耕是一项有利于土壤结构稳定和遏制土壤侵蚀的黑土地保护措施。     

长期免耕覆盖对旱地冬小麦旗叶光合特性及干物质积累与转运的影响

【目的】小麦开花后光合特性对干物质积累和转运具有重要作用,而土壤水分是影响作物光合作用最重要的环境因子。研究长期定位试验条件下免耕覆盖的蓄水保墒作用和小麦冠层光合有效辐射传输特征,及其对小麦光合特性和干物质转运规律的影响,以期为旱区作物生产及农田高效用水提供理论依据。【方法】本文以山西临汾20年免耕覆盖和常规耕作两种耕作方式的长期定位试验为平台,于2013年休闲期和小麦生育期对土壤水分,小麦生育后期光合有效辐射、旗叶光合参数、干物质积累和产量构成因素进行了测定。【结果】在休闲期和小麦生育期,与常规耕作方式相比,免耕覆盖耕作0—160 cm土层土壤储水量显著增加,平均提高了12%,其中在土壤水分含量的最低时期(灌浆前期)比常规耕作提高21%(P0.01)。在抽穗和灌浆前期免耕覆盖处理的小麦截获的光合有效辐射比常规耕作高163μmol/(m2·s),其中在灌浆前期二者差异最大,达19.3%(P0.05),并且免耕覆盖下小麦中上层和中下层都有充分利用光能的机会。在灌浆前期免耕覆盖比常规耕作处理的小麦旗叶气孔导度平均增加39%,二氧化碳利用能力平均增加11%,瞬时水分利用效率提高了22%;小麦抽穗后到成熟期免耕覆盖处理的小麦旗叶净光合速率平均比常规耕作高39%,收获期籽粒重和植株总重分别比常规耕作高57%和46%(P0.01),并且开花后干物质积累量对籽粒的贡献率达到了64%。从产量构成因素来看,免耕覆盖的小麦穗数和千粒重分别比常规耕作高31%和10%,实收产量比常规耕作高41%(P0.01)。免耕覆盖耕作方式下的土壤蓄水保墒能力缓解了因水分胁迫作用而出现的光合午休现象,保证了小麦光合速率处于较高水平;同时免耕覆盖增强了小麦开花后干物质的积累能力,并且籽粒干物质的主要来源是开花后干物质的积累,而常规耕作则是以开花前贮藏的同化物量为主要来源。【结论】在晋南旱区,采用长期免耕覆盖的耕作方式可提高土壤水分的保蓄能力和光能截获能力,增强冬小麦的净光合效率、瞬时水分利用效率及干物质积累与转运,协调产量构成因素之间的关系,提高小麦产量。     

Ammonia volatilization following surface application of urea to tilled and no-till soils: A laboratory comparison

Broadcasting of urea to agricultural soils can result in considerable losses by NH₃ volatilization. However, it is unclear if the impact of this practice on NH₃ emissions is further enhanced when performed on no-till (NT) soils. The objective of this study was to compare NH₃ volatilization following broadcasting of urea to NT and moldboard plowed (MP) soils. Intact soil cores were taken shortly after harvest from NT and MP plots of three long-term tillage experiments in Québec (Canada) and stored for 4.5 months prior to incubation. Urea (14 g N m⁻²) was applied at the soil surface and NH₃ volatilization was measured for 30 d using an open incubation system. Mean cumulative NH₃ losses were greater (P < 0.001) in NT (3.00 g N m⁻²) than in MP (0.52 g N m⁻²). Several factors may have contributed to the higher emissions from the NT soils. Urease activity in the top 1 cm of soils was on average 4.2 times higher in NT than in MP soils. As a result, hydrolysis of urea occurred very rapidly in NT soils as indicated by enhanced NH₃ emissions 4 h after application of urea. The presence of crop residues at the surface of NT soils also decreased contact of the urea granules with the soil, possibly reducing adsorption of NH₄⁺ on soil particles. Lower volatilization on the MP soils may also have partly resulted from a fraction of urea granules falling into shallow cracks. Field trials are needed to confirm our finding that NT soils bear greater potential for NH₃ volatilization following surface application of urea than MP soils.     

Influence of soil fractions on microbial degradation behavior of mineral hydrocarbons

Various interactions occurring between organic chemicals and soil constituents participate in the determination of the fate of these pollutants, including their biodegradability. These relations need to be characterized in order to design and successfully implement a bioremediation application. In the present study, biodegradation of spiked and aged crude oil contamination in two dissimilar soils was related to their composition. GC-FID analysis of bulk soil samples as well as sand- and <63 μm fractions showed considerable differences in contaminant distribution and degradation behavior within these fractions. Whereas a freshly spiked silty soil showed reasonable degradation (51%), degradation was not significant after ageing. By contrast, a sandy soil was degraded by 25% (recently contaminated) and 19% (aged). Biodegradation occurred in the fine fraction only, with a comparably high content of organic carbon whereas hydrocarbon concentration remained constant in the sand fraction. This was correlated with sorption to the fine fraction where hydrocarbon concentrations were higher by over an order of magnitude compared to the sand fraction. Soil composition, biology and chemistry exert a pronounced influence on microbial degradation in respect to (i) contaminant availability and (ii) the structure and density of the microbial community.