Livestock loss caused by predators outside the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania

Human-carnivore conflict is a serious management issue often causing opposition towards conservation efforts. In a survey of 481 households in seven different villages outside the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania, 67.4% of respondents owned livestock and 27.4% of all the households surveyed reported losses of a total of 4.5% of their livestock to wild predators over 12 months. This loss equated to an average annual financial loss of 19.2% (US $26.8) of their cash income. Livestock depredation was reported to be caused most often by spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) (97.7%), leopard (Panthera pardus) (1.6%), baboon (Papio cynocephalus) (0.4%), lion (Panthera leo) (0.1%) and lastly black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) (0.1%). Total reported losses during 2003 amounted to US $12,846 of which spotted hyena kills were reported to account for 98.2%. The mean annual livestock loss per household (of those that reported loss) was 5.3 head of stock, which represents more than two-thirds of the local average annual cash income. Depredation by large felids occurred only in a narrow zone along the protected area (<3 km), whereas spotted hyenas killed livestock even in households located far away (>30 km). Tolerance of livestock depredation among the respondents was low. Logistic regression models indicated that education improved tolerance, while for livestock owners higher depredation rates was linked to approval of lethal retaliation and effective protection measures was associated with a reduced desire of retaliation. We recommend that further research should identify the precise causes of livestock loss and which protection measures that can reduce depredation.     

Spatial, temporal, and physical characteristics of livestock depredations by large carnivores along a Kenyan reserve border

Most large mammalian carnivores are in global decline, largely due to their involvement in livestock depredation. Research that advances our understanding of predator-livestock interactions is crucial to conflict mitigation and carnivore conservation. Here we investigated the influence of environmental and socio-ecological factors on livestock depredation by carnivores in pastoral villages adjacent to the Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya during a 14-month period. We attempted to identify factors associated with temporal and spatial variation in depredation rates, incorporating data on a closely monitored spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) population known to be involved in depredation events. Spotted hyenas, leopards (Panthera pardus) and lions (Panthera leo) were responsible for 53%, 32%, and 15% of attacks on livestock, respectively. Monthly depredation frequency was correlated positively with rainfall and negatively with natural prey abundance. Radio-telemetry revealed that hyenas defending a group territory within the Reserve spent more time outside the Reserve during months when hyena attacks on livestock were most frequent. Results of logistic regression models, which indicated spotted hyenas were most likely to attack large villages, were supported by behavioral observations of hyenas near villages. Leopards however, selected villages that were spatially isolated from other villages. Hyenas were more likely to attack livestock enclosures constructed of local bush material than those of more sturdy “pole” timber, but use of pole material more than doubled the probability of leopard attack. Selection of fence type should therefore depend on the size and relative isolation of villages. Overall, improved fences, more watch dogs, and high levels of human activity were not associated with lower livestock losses to predators.     

Lions and Warriors: Social factors underlying declining African lion populations and the effect of incentive-based management in Kenya

African lion (Panthera leo) populations are in decline throughout most of Africa, but the problem is particularly acute in southern Kenya, where Maasai people are spearing and poisoning lions at a rate that will ensure near term local extinction. Lion killing is shaped by Maasai perception of livestock depredation, socio-economic factors, and the complex relationship between Maasai and conservation. These all affect tolerance for lions and consequently Maasai behavior towards conservation initiatives and carnivores in general. We used an in-depth quantitative questionnaire and participatory rural appraisals (PRAs) to identify the social and ecological predictors of lion killing and to investigate the effect of a compensation scheme on individual tolerance. Individuals who lose a greater proportion of their livestock to predators relative to their overall livestock loss, those affiliated with an evangelical church, and those who mainly sell rather than accumulate livestock all reported a higher propensity to kill carnivores. The future of carnivore conservation in this region depends on a better understanding of the nuances of human–carnivore conflict and a concerted effort to address appropriate cultural and community-level institutions, chiefly by providing economic benefits to local people who engage in positive conservation activities.     

Conflicts between Amur (Siberian) tigers and humans in the Russian Far East

In 1999, the Russian Federation created a Tiger Response Team (TRT) to investigate and intervene in human–tiger conflicts. We examined data collected on human-Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) conflicts from January 2000 through February 2009 to: (1) summarize and characterize human–tiger conflicts in the area, (2) examine causes of human–tiger conflicts, and (3) attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of the TRT. The team investigated 202 conflicts. Both attacks on humans and depredations were greatest in winter (X² = 9, df = 3, P = 0.03 and X² = 64, df = 3, P < 0.001, respectively). Tiger depredation on domestic animals was the most common type of conflict reported (57%), followed by tigers near human habitations (22%), miscellaneous conflicts (12%), and attacks on humans (9%). Dogs were killed more commonly than other domestic animals (63% of 254 animals), likely because livestock were well managed. Nineteen attacks on humans were recorded resulting in 11 injuries and 2 deaths. Nearly four tigers per year (n = 32 tigers) died, were killed, or were removed from the wild, and all but 1 of 20 tigers killed or removed from the wild by the TRT were considered unfit to survive in the wild. Attacks on humans (n = 19) were most often (77%) by wounded tigers (80% of injuries were human-caused) and commonly provoked (47% of attacks). The effectiveness of interventions focused on reducing depredation on domestic animals was unclear, but data suggested that removal of injured and other unhealthy tigers from the wild by the Tiger Response Team resulted in fewer human deaths. Our recommendations include that the TRT continues to work to reduce conflict by rapidly removing debilitated tigers from the wild, explores different methods and technologies for reducing depredation on domestic animals, and increases their efforts to maintain tigers in the wild through telemetry monitoring, translocation, and rehabilitation of orphaned cubs. Further, standardized data should be collected to evaluate all interventions, with information from evaluation guiding an adaptive management component of their human–tiger conflict mitigation activities. This process should occur across tiger landscapes in Asia to allow rapid assessment of interventions.     

Mountain lion depredation in southern Brazil

Mountain lion (Puma concolor) depredation incidents on livestock herds were recorded at 15 ranches in southern Brazil from 1993 to 1995. Maximum losses to mountain lions were 78% for goats, 84% for sheep, and 16% for cattle. Cattle mortality arising from causes other than depredation assumed a greater importance in herd productivity. In contrast, attacks on sheep and goats were more frequent than losses to other causes, but could be reduced to acceptable levels when flocks were corralled at night. Most depredation incidents occurred when weather and light conditions were unfavorable to human activity. We explain these patterns and inter-ranch variation in depredation rates on the basis of a risk-avoidance strategy by the mountain lions. Stock losses can be minimized by understanding these patterns and by applying appropriate herd husbandry, thus reducing the urge to persecute this protected species.     

Human-wildlife conflict in the Kingdom of Bhutan: Patterns of livestock predation by large mammalian carnivores

We examined predation activity throughout Bhutan by tiger (Panthera tigris), common leopard (Panthera pardus), snow leopard (Uncia uncia) and Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus) on a variety of livestock types using data gathered over the first two years (2003-2005) of a compensation scheme for livestock losses. One thousand three hundred and seventy five kills were documented, with leopards killing significantly more livestock (70% of all kills), than tigers (19%), bears (8%) and snow leopards (2%). About 50% of livestock killing were of cattle, and about 33% were of horses, with tigers, leopards and snow leopards killing a significantly greater proportion of horses than predicted from availability. Examination of cattle kills showed that leopards killed a significantly greater proportion of smaller prey (e.g., calves), whereas tigers killed a significantly greater proportion of larger prey (e.g., bulls). Overall, livestock predation was greatest in summer and autumn which corresponded with a peak in cropping agriculture; livestock are turned out to pasture and forest during the cropping season, and subsequently, are less well guarded than at other times. Across Bhutan, high horse density and low cattle and yak density were associated with high rates of livestock attack, but no relationship was found with forest cover or human population density. Several northern districts were identified as ‘predation hotspots’, where proportions of livestock lost to predation were considerable, and the ratio of reported kills to relative abundance of livestock was high. Implications of our findings for mitigating livestock losses and for conserving large carnivores in Bhutan are discussed.     

Livestock predation by carnivores in Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park, Bhutan

Villages in Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park, central Bhutan, report livestock depredation by wild carnivores including leopard (Panthera pardus), tiger (Panthera tigris), Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibettanus), and dhole (Cuon alpinus). In a survey of 274 households in six different geogs (sub-districts) within the park, 21.2% of households surveyed reported losses of a total of 2.3% of their domestic animals to wild predators over 12 months. This loss equated to an average annual financial loss equal to 17% (US$ 44.72) of their total per-capita cash income. Total reported losses during 2000 amounted to US$ 12,252, of which leopard and tiger kills accounted for 82% (US$ 10,047). Annual mean livestock loss per household (of those that reported loss) was 1.29 head of stock, equating to more than two-thirds of their annual cash income of $250. Lax herding, inadequate guarding practices, and overgrazing may have contributed to livestock losses. Approximately 60% of the households lacked proper stables for corralling their livestock at night and there was a significant correlation between the number of livestock lost and the distance between the household and the grazing pasture. Overall, reported predation rates have increased since the inception of the park in 1993 and since implementation of the Forest and Nature Conservation Act in 1995, which prioritises some of Bhutan’s key livestock predators for conservation. We propose livestock intensification programmes, including pasture improvement, and financial compensation as short-term measures to reduce conflict between people and predators. In the long-term, we recommend that the feasibility of an insurance scheme should be tested, the possibility of relaxing the resource use restrictions in the Forest and Nature Conservation Act of 1995 be explored, and that farmers should be involved in managing human-wildlife conflicts - particularly through improving their own herding and guarding practices, and building proper corralling facilities and adopting reliable corralling procedures.     

Cattle depredation by puma (Puma concolor) and jaguar (Panthera onca) in central-western Brazil

In this study, data on cattle depredation by puma (Puma concolor) and jaguar (Panthera onca) were recorded for six years (1998-2003) in a cattle ranch in central-western Brazil. Depredation represented 18.9% of the overall cattle mortality, being predominant on calves. In biomass, kills represented 0.4% (63.8 kg/km²) of the ranch’s annual stock. In economic loss, kills represented 0.3% of the cattle stock value. Depredation was mainly associated with cattle’s age class and location along with the time of birth of calves. The proportion of pastures next to forest with depredation (n = 33, 48.5%) was not distinguished to the proportion of pastures not bordering forest with depredation (n = 35, 51.5%). However, the proportion of pastures next to forest with depredation represented 54% (n = 33) of the 61 total pastures that were at least partially surrounded by forest patches or riparian forests that comprised eight continuum blocks of forest fragments of different sizes in the ranch and adjacent areas. No kills occurred in the central portion (main house) of the farm, close to the headquarters where the pastures not bordering forest. The distances of the kills in relation to areas of native forest was 1317.48 ± 941.03 m. In order to reduce depredation, calves should be kept as far as possible from forest areas and concentrated cattle breeding and calving seasons should be encouraged.     

Livestock predation by endangered African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in northern Kenya

Most large mammalian carnivores are in global decline, principally due to conflict with livestock farmers. Because endangered African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) range widely, often beyond the boundaries of protected areas, they may be particularly exposed to lethal control by farmers, even where nominally protected by reserves. Hence, effectively conserving wild dogs demands resolution of their conflicts with farmers. We investigated livestock depredation by African wild dogs living outside protected areas in northern Kenya. Scat analysis confirmed the distribution of depredation events reported by local farmers, indicating that farmer reports - collated by local Community Liaison Officers - gave a reasonably good index of the true pattern of depredation. Although livestock were abundant throughout the study area, depredation was exceedingly uncommon (approximately one attack per 1000 km² per year) and the costs of tolerating wild dogs were very low (US $3.40/wilddog/year) where wild prey remained, even at low densities. However, where wild prey were seriously depleted, wild dogs killed livestock repeatedly, and the cost of sustaining them rose to US $389/wilddog/year. Hence, although wild dogs had a negligible economic impact in the region, their impact was locally severe. Conservation activities for wild dogs are most likely to be successful if targeted at areas where wild prey remain, and where traditional herding practices have been retained.     

Factors affecting Eurasian lynx kill rates on semi-domestic reindeer in northern Scandinavia: Can ecological research contribute to the development of a fair compensation system?

Semi-domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) are the main prey for lynx (Lynx lynx) in northern Scandinavia. This causes large, but poorly documented, losses of reindeer. Although the compensation schemes differ between Norway and Sweden, there is a legal requirement in both Scandinavian countries that losses of semi-domestic reindeer to large carnivores should be fully compensated. The current level of compensation payment is based on limited data on lynx kill rates on reindeer. The main goal of this study was to quantify lynx kill rates on reindeer across a range of ecological conditions in northern Scandinavia. A total of 35 lynx were monitored during 3667 days. All lynx individuals killed reindeer. However, we observed a high variation in individual kill rates. Kill rates were strongly affected by sex and social status (i.e. females with and without kittens), as well as season and reindeer availability. The highest kill rates were observed in summer for male lynx, and the lowest were observed during winter for solitary lynx at low reindeer density. In summer, several female lynx switched completely to small prey species even at high densities of reindeer. The present political goals for lynx conservation in Scandinavia require that lynx occur in the reindeer husbandry area where reindeer are the only suitable ungulate prey available. Accordingly, it is therefore impossible to have the total prevention of depredation as a management goal. Rather depredation levels must be limited such that they are considered acceptable, and fair compensation payments should be paid. Our study is the first empirical quantification of the magnitude of lynx depredation on semi-domestic reindeer. This is an important step necessary to enable the setting of fair compensation levels and will hopefully lead to a reduction in conflict level concerning the potential impacts that lynx have on reindeer.     

Jaguars, pumas, their prey base, and cattle ranching: ecological interpretations of a management problem

Jaguar and puma depredation on livestock may be influenced by (1) innate and learned behavior; (2) health and status of individual cats; (3) division of space and resources among jaguar and puma; (4) cattle husbandry practices; and (5) abundance and distribution of natural prey. Our study in Los Llanos of Venezuela aimed to establish how all these elements related to cattle being lost to cat depredation. Prey distribution was influenced by forest composition, topographical characteristics, and degree of habitat interspersion. The biomass of natural prey in the study area was adequate to support the resident large cats without a subsidy of livestock. Selective rather than opportunistic hunting by the cats reinforced that conclusion. Puma were responsible for more attacks on livestock than jaguar, frequently in maternity pastures in upland areas of relatively low prey availability. Management recommendations are discussed that may be relevant to other savanna/forest mosaics of South America.     

Local perceptions of jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor) in the Iguaçu National Park area, south Brazil

Jaguars (Panthera onca) have been killed by local residents within the boundaries and lands surrounding Iguaçu National Park (INP), Brazil. Both jaguars and pumas (Puma concolor) occur in the region, however, livestock predation by pumas has rarely been reported. Our objective was to assess the local perceptions about jaguars and pumas. We identified two major factors that distinguished the perceptions towards the two species: less people feared the puma than the jaguar; and most people believed that jaguars, but not pumas, were released into INP by local authorities. Interestingly, despite those major differences in these perceptions, feelings towards the two species tended to be the same. Perceptions towards jaguars were not influenced by the predation history of the properties, suggesting that the predation impact was not remarkable enough to influence local perceptions towards carnivores. This is apparently the first study on local perceptions towards large carnivores in Brazil.     

Spatial organization and food habits of jaguars (Panthera onca) in a floodplain forest

For most carnivore populations, territoriality is the regulating social system ultimately determined by food abundance and/or strife. However, in some food-based territorial felid species such as the jaguar (Panthera onca), the influence of food availability on territoriality remains unclear and may be lessened because of a tendency for individuals to occur at high densities across the landscape. We examined spatial organization and use of food in a population of jaguars in the southern region of the Pantanal, Brazil (2003-04). We predicted that if territoriality plays an important role in determining jaguar population dynamics, exclusive use of territories should be observed and thereby influence prey selection patterns. We determined that home range sizes were comparable between sexes and overlapped little at the core area level. Line transect surveys revealed that large mammals comprised the bulk of available wild prey for jaguars, and scat analysis indicated that jaguars relied mostly on large mammalian prey. The most common wild species killed by jaguars were capybara (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris) and caiman (Caiman yacare). We estimated that the wild prey base was adequate to support the jaguar population. Larger wild prey species were considerably more likely to die from predation than from other causes, and predation was more likely to occur in jaguar core areas than in areas of home range overlap. Modest cattle depredation rates had little demographic importance to the local jaguar population. We conclude that spacing patterns in the local jaguar population were likely based on exclusion through territoriality rather than food limitation.     

Community, lions, livestock and money: A spatial and social analysis of attitudes to wildlife and the conservation value of tourism in a human–carnivore conflict in Botswana

We quantified livestock (cattle, shoats, horses and donkeys) losses to lions (Panthera leo) and attitudes to lions, livestock losses and tourism among livestock owners, village residents and tourism workers around Makgadikgadi Pans National Park in Botswana. Losses were not correlated with the size or structure of livestock enclosures, numbers of dogs or herders. Rather losses increased with the amount of livestock owned. Most were stray animals preyed upon at night. Attitudes to wildlife, conservation and lions were also not consistently distributed within the society we studied. Negative attitudes to lions were almost ubiquitous among cattleposts but less widespread among people living in the more urbanized society of villages or among people working in tourism.Although four tourist camps were operating in the area, benefits from these operations were largely limited to employees. Despite considerable sums of money being paid to Botswana by local tourist facilities few respondents viewed tourism as valuable and most felt that the government and not they or their community was the main beneficiary of tourism. Tourism employees made up a small sub-section of the adult population drawn predominately from larger villages while the costs of livestock losses were spread among cattleposts near the park boundary. These same cattlepost respondents were not prepared to improve stock care to protect livestock, but indicated a willingness to kill lions instead. If tourism is to play a role in reducing human–wildlife conflict, communities must not be regarded as homogenous entities into which to distribute benefits evenly. Benefits might usefully be distributed in relation to the costs of coexisting with wildlife or used as incentives to better protect livestock or other human resources.     

Animal breeding systems and big game hunting: Models and application

We apply an age- and stage-structured model incorporating varying harem sizes, paternal care and infanticide to examine the effect of hunting on sustainability of populations. Compared to standard carnivore and herbivore models, these models produce different outcomes for sustainable offtake when either adults, or adult males are harvested. Larger harem size increases sustainable offtake whereas paternal care and infanticide lowers it. Where males are monogamous, populations are vulnerable to male offtake, regardless of paternal care. Surprisingly, an incidental take of 10% of other age-sex-classes has very little effect on these findings. Indiscriminate (subsistence) hunting of all age-sex classes has a dramatic effect on certain populations. Applying these behavior-sensitive models to tourist hunting in the Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania, we find that across the Reserve hunting quotas were generally set at sustainable rates except for leopard (Panthera pardus). In certain hunting blocks within the Reserve, however, quotas for eland (Taurotragus oryx), hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), lion (Panthera leo), reedbuck (Redunca arundinum), sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) and waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) are set at unsustainably high rates. Moreover, particular blocks are consistently awarded high quotas. Behaviorally sensitive models refine predictions for population viability, specify data required to make predictions robust, and demonstrate the necessity of incorporating behavioral ecological knowledge in conservation and management.     

The impact of sport-hunting on the population dynamics of an African lion population in a protected area

Between 1999 and 2004 we undertook an ecological study of African lions (Panthera leo) in Hwange National Park, western Zimbabwe to measure the impact of sport-hunting beyond the park on the lion population within the park, using radio-telemetry and direct observation. 34 of 62 tagged lions died during the study (of which 24 were shot by sport hunters: 13 adult males, 5 adult females, 6 sub-adult males). Sport hunters in the safari areas surrounding the park killed 72% of tagged adult males from the study area. Over 30% of all males shot were sub-adult (<4 years). Hunting off-take of male lions doubled during 2001-2003 compared to levels in the three preceding years, which caused a decline in numbers of adult males in the population (from an adult sex ratio of 1:3 to 1:6 in favour of adult females). Home ranges made vacant by removal of adult males were filled by immigration of males from the park core. Infanticide was observed when new males entered prides. The proportion of male cubs increased between 1999 and 2004, which may have occurred to compensate for high adult male mortality.     

Straw management and optimal N fertilization in seed production of timothy (Phleum Pratense L.) and Meadow Fescue (Festuca Pratensis Huds.)

The market for herbage seed straw has diminished in many seed-production areas due to less livestock. Seed growers are therefore looking for alternatives to straw removal, which up to now has been the most common practice. During 2000–2006, different alternative straw chopping methods, both at the back of the combiner and with a tractor-mounted flail-chopper, and field burning strategies were evaluated in seed crops of timothy (Phleum pratense) and meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis) in southeast Norway. The requirement for an extra N input in autumn (30–40?kg ha^-1) when practising straw chopping was also examined. Compared to straw removal, straw chopping at the back of the combiner during seed harvest did not reduce seed yield in the following year as long as stubble height was low (<10?cm in timothy) and the straw spread uniformly in the field. On average, seed yield was 1–4% and 1–9% higher compared to straw removal in timothy and meadow fescue, respectively. If the chopped straw was spread unevenly, or long stubble was left at combining, it is recommended to use a tractor-mounted flail-chopper after harvest. The experiments did not provide any support for an extra input of nitrogen in autumn, either in timothy or meadow fescue, when the straw was chopped rather than removed. Burning of stubble and straw soon after seed harvest was another efficient clean-up method after harvest, which increased seed yield 9–15% and 17–20% compared to straw removal in the two species, respectively. However, as the burning method is risky and causes smoke emissions, it is normally not recommended. It is concluded that for most seed growers, the most effective, least laborious and most environment-friendly alternative to straw removal will be to chop the straw at the back of the combiner during seed harvest.     

The impact of trophy hunting on lions (Panthera leo) and other large carnivores in the Bénoué Complex, northern Cameroon

In West and Central Africa large carnivores have become increasingly rare as a consequence of rapid habitat destruction and lack of resources for protected area management. The Bénoué Complex (23,394 km²) in northern Cameroon is a regionally critical area for large mammal conservation. In the complex lions (Panthera leo), leopards (Panthera pardus) and spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) are formally protected in three national parks and 28 hunting zones. Over-hunting may be having a strong additive effect precipitating declines in large carnivore numbers across the complex. We used a coarse level track index method to estimate the relative abundance of these three species both in hunting zones and national parks. The results were interpreted with respect to ungulate abundance, and hunting impact. There was no significant difference between the densities of medium to larger species of ungulates in the hunting zones and the national parks, and no difference in leopard and spotted hyena densities in the respective areas. However, lions occurred at significantly lower densities in the hunting zones, and even in the national parks occurred at significantly lower densities than prey biomass would predict.     

Impact of conservation interventions on the dynamics and persistence of a persecuted leopard (Panthera pardus) population

There is an extraordinary assortment of technical approaches to conserving carnivore populations, but the effectiveness of conservation activities is rarely evaluated. Accordingly, we initiated a study to assess the impact of several conservation interventions on the dynamics and persistence of a leopard (Panthera pardus) population in Phinda Private Game Reserve, South Africa. These included revisions of the statutory systems that regulate problem animal control and trophy hunting, and we instituted a program intended to reduce human–leopard conflict in the region. We compared demographic rates of radiocollared leopards from two sampling periods: a pre-treatment period prior to intervention, and a treatment period after intervention. The average annual mortality rate of the population decreased from 0.401 ± 0.070 to 0.134 ± 0.016, with fewer leopards killed by humans and in intraspecific clashes after intervention. The overall reproductive output of the population increased in the treatment period, although annual cub production was higher in the pre-treatment period. This was mainly due to larger litter sizes prior to intervention, which may have been a strategy used by female leopards to offset high levels of infanticide. Results from camera-trap surveys and a Leslie-matrix model indicated an increase in annual population growth rate (λ) of 14–16% after the implementation of conservation measures. Our findings highlight the importance of addressing both the numerical and functional components of population dynamics when managing large carnivores exposed to hunting or persecution.     

Factors associated with human-killing tigers in Chitwan National Park, Nepal

Human-killing is the ultimate expression of human-tiger conflict. It is a complex issue that needs to be addressed to maintain support for tiger (Panthera tigris) conservation in areas where human-killing is prevalent. This research was undertaken to investigate the ecological and sociological aspects of human-killing in the central lowlands of Nepal. We used 28 years of data from human-killing events in Chitwan National Park and the surrounding area to: (1) document the geographic distribution of human-killing incidents, (2) examine ecological variables associated with sites where humans were killed, (3) characterize human-killing tigers, and (4) identify human activities that make people vulnerable to attack. Finally, we use this information to recommend strategies to reduce human-tiger conflicts. Data on human-killing incidents and removal of human-killing tigers were obtained from veterinarian and Kathmandu Zoo records and by visiting the location of each kill with a victim’s family member or friend. Thirty-six tigers killed 88 people from 1979 to 2006. Most (66%) kills were made within 1 km of forest edge but equally in degraded and intact forests. An equal number of male and female tigers killed humans and 56% of tigers that were examined had physical deformities. The trend of human deaths increased significantly from an average of 1.2 (±1.2) persons per year prior to 1998 to 7.2 (±6.9) per year from 1998 to 2006. This difference is due primarily to a ten fold increase in killing in the buffer zone since 1998 because of forest restoration. Nearly half the people killed were grass/fodder collectors. Local participation in tiger management and conservation is essential to mitigate human-tiger conflicts. We recommend that villagers be recruited to help radio collar and monitor potentially dangerous tigers, participate in long term tiger monitoring, and attend a tiger conservation awareness program focused on tiger behavior and avoidance of conflict.