Dust devils on Mars

Columnar, cone-shaped, and funnel-shaped clouds rising 1 to 6 kilometers above the surface of Mars have been identified in Viking Orbiter images. They are interpreted as dust devils, confirming predictions of their occurrence on Mars and giving evidence of a specific form of dust entrainment.     

Voyager 2 at neptune: imaging science results

Voyager 2 images of Neptune reveal a windy planet characterized by bright clouds of methane ice suspended in an exceptionally clear atmosphere above a lower deck of hydrogen sulfide or ammonia ices. Neptune's atmosphere is dominated by a large anticyclonic storm system that has been named the Great Dark Spot (GDS). About the same size as Earth in extent, the GDS bears both many similarities and some differences to the Great Red Spot of Jupiter. Neptune's zonal wind profile is remarkably similar to that of Uranus. Neptune has three major rings at radii of 42,000, 53,000, and 63,000 kilometers. The outer ring contains three higher density arc-like segments that were apparently responsible for most of the ground-based occultation events observed during the current decade. Like the rings of Uranus, the Neptune rings are composed of very dark material; unlike that of Uranus, the Neptune system is very dusty. Six new regular satellites were found, with dark surfaces and radii ranging from 200 to 25 kilometers. All lie inside the orbit of Triton and the inner four are located within the ring system. Triton is seen to be a differentiated body, with a radius of 1350 kilometers and a density of 2.1 grams per cubic centimeter; it exhibits clear evidence of early episodes of surface melting. A now rigid crust of what is probably water ice is overlain with a brilliant coating of nitrogen frost, slightly darkened and reddened with organic polymer material. Streaks of organic polymer suggest seasonal winds strong enough to move particles of micrometer size or larger, once they become airborne. At least two active plumes were seen, carrying dark material 8 kilometers above the surface before being transported downstream by high level winds. The plumes may be driven by solar heating and the subsequent violent vaporization of subsurface nitrogen.     

Triton's Geyser-Like Plumes: Discovery and Basic Characterization

At least four active geyser-like eruptions were discovered in Voyager 2 images of Triton, Neptune's large satellite. The two best documented eruptions occur as columns of dark material rising to an altitude of about 8 kilometers where dark clouds of material are left suspended to drift downwind over 100 kilometers. The radii of the rising columns appear to be in the range of several tens of meters to a kilometer. One model for the mechanism to drive the plumes involves heating of nitrogen ice in a subsurface greenhouse environment; nitrogen gas pressurized by the solar heating explosively vents to the surface carrying clouds of ice and dark partides into the atmosphere. A temperature increase of less than 4 kelvins above the ambient surface value of 38 +/- 3 kelvins is more than adequate to drive the plumes to an 8-kilometer altitude. The mass flux in the trailing clouds is estimated to consist of up to 10 kilograms of fine dark particles per second or twice as much nitrogen ice and perhaps several hundred or more kilograms of nitrogen gas per second. Each eruption may last a year or more, during which on the order of a tenth of a cubic kilometer of ice is sublimed.     

Oblique impact: a process for obtaining meteorite samples from other planets

Cratering flow calculations for a series of oblique to normal (10 degrees to 90 degrees ) impacts of silicate projectiles onto a silicate halfspace were carried out to determine whether or not the gas produced upon shock-vaporizing both projectile and target material would form a downstream jet that could entrain and propel SNC meteorites from the Martian surface. The difficult constraints that the impact origin hypothesis for SNC meteorites has to satisfy are that these meteorites are lightly to moderately shocked and yet have been accelerated to speeds in excess of the Martian escape velocity (more than 5 kilometers per second). Two-dimensional finite difference calculations were performed that show that at highly probable impact velocities (7.5 kilometers per second), vapor plume jets are produced at oblique impact angles of 25 degrees to 60 degrees and have speeds as great as 20 kilometers per second. These plumes flow nearly parallel to the planetary surface. It is shown that upon impact of projectiles having radii of 0.1 to 1 kilometer, the resulting vapor jets have densities of 0.1 to 1 gram per cubic centimeter. These jets can entrain Martian surface rocks and accelerate them to velocities greater than 5 kilometers per second. This mechanism may launch SNC meteorites to earth.     

2013年2月一次雷暴伴降雪天气过程分析

利用常规气象观测资料、ECMWF 0.5°×0.5°的6 h再分析资料和多普勒天气雷达探测资料,综合分析了2013年2月18日夜间至19日凌晨发生在江淮地区的雷暴伴降雪天气过程。结果表明,高层低槽东移、中层在江淮之间有切变线东移南压,低层以及地面为冷高压控制,是此次雷暴伴降雪天气过程发生时的天气背景;此次雷暴是在稳定的层结下产生的,不再满足不稳定层结这一雷暴发生的三要素之一。中层有较强的西南急流带,急流带随着系统的南移而向南收缩,其辐合带南移的速度快于急流向南收缩的速度,雷暴主要发生在急流的北侧边缘附近的辐合带内,辐合位于800 hPa以上的气层内,主要位于650～600 hPa。此次雷暴过程中,近地层和中层出现了相反的冷暖平流交替,雷雨发生时段,近地层为冷平流控制,850 hPa以上暖平流迅速加强,这也导致在中层出现了较强的上升气流,暖平流和上升气流的突然加强为雷暴的发生提供了动力触发条件;西南急流为降水地区提供了良好的水汽输送环境,另外,对流的发展、强烈的上升运动使得水汽向高层输送,整个中高层均有较为充足的水汽,为对流提供了较好的水汽条件。此次雷暴伴降雪天气过程中,对流回波的强度较弱,为30～35 dBz,顶高较低,大部分回波低于6 km,且干湿层边界明显。     

Sharp sides to the African superplume

Beneath southern Africa is a large structure about 1200 kilometers across and extending obliquely 1500 kilometers upward from the core-mantle boundary with a shear velocity reduction of about 3%. Using a fortuitous set of SKS phases that travel along its eastern side, we show that the boundary of the anomaly appears to be sharp, with a width less than 50 kilometers, and is tilted outward from its center. Dynamic models that fit the seismic constraints have a dense chemical layer within an upwardly flowing thermal structure. The tilt suggests that the layer is dynamically unstable on geological time scales.     

The nature of the near-infrared features on the venus night side

Near-infrared images of the Venus night side show bright contrast features that move from east to west, in the direction of the cloud-top atmospheric superrotation. Recently acquired images of the Venus night side along with earlier spectroscopic observations allow identification of the mechanisms that produce these features, their level of formation, and the wind velocities at those levels. The features are detectable only at wavelengths near 1.74 and 2.3 micrometers, in narrow atmospheric windows between the CO(2) and H(2)O bands. The brightest features have brightness temperatures near 480 Kelvin, whereas the darkest features are more than 50 Kelvin cooler. Several factors suggest that this radiation is emitted by hot gases at altitudes below 35 kilometers in the Venus atmosphere. The feature contrasts are produced as this thermal radiation passes through a higher, cooler, atmospheric layer that has horizontal variations in transparency. The 6.5-day east-west rotation period of the features indicates that equatorial wind speeds are near 70 meters per second in this upper layer. Similar wind speeds have been measured by entry probes and balloons at altitudes between 50 and 55 kilometers in the middle cloud layer. The bright features indicate that there are partial clearings in this cloud deck. The presence of these clearings could decrease the efficiency of the atmospheric greenhouse that maintains the high surface temperatures on Venus.     

Finite-frequency tomography reveals a variety of plumes in the mantle

We present tomographic evidence for the existence of deep-mantle thermal convection plumes. P-wave velocity images show at least six well-resolved plumes that extend into the lowermost mantle: Ascension, Azores, Canary, Easter, Samoa, and Tahiti. Other less well-resolved plumes, including Hawaii, may also reach the lowermost mantle. We also see several plumes that are mostly confined to the upper mantle, suggesting that convection may be partially separated into two depth regimes. All of the observed plumes have diameters of several hundred kilometers, indicating that plumes convey a substantial fraction of the internal heat escaping from Earth.     

The martian surface

With the scarcity of factual data and the difficulty of applying crucial tests, many of the properties of the Martian surface remain a mystery; the planet may become a source of great surprises in the future. In the following, the conclusions are enumerated more or less in the order of their reliability, the more certain ones first, conjectures or ambiguous interpretations coming last. Even if they prove to be wrong, they may serve as a stimulus for further investigation. Impact craters on Mars, from collisions with nearby asteroids and other stray bodies, were predicted 16 years ago (5-7) and are now verified by the Mariner IV pictures. The kink in the frequency curve of Martian crater diameters indicates that those larger than 20 kilometers could have survived aeolian erosion since the "beginning." They indicate an erosion rate 30 times slower than that in terrestrial deserts and 70 times faster than micrometeorite erosion on the moon. The observed number, per unit area, of Martian craters larger than 20 kilometers exceeds 4 times that calculated from the statistical theory of interplanetary collisions with the present population of stray bodies and for a time interval of 4500 million years, even when allowance is made for the depletion of the Martian group of asteroids, which were more numerous in the past. This, and the low eroded rims of the Martian craters suggest that many of the craters have survived almost since the formation of the crust. Therefore, Mars could not have possessed a dense atmosphere for any length of time. If there was abundant water for the first 100 million years or so, before it escaped it could have occurred only in the solid state as ice and snow, with but traces of vapor in the atmosphere, on account of the low temperature caused by the high reflectivity of clouds and snow. For Martian life there is thus the dilemma: with water, it is too cold; without, too dry. The crater density on Mars, though twice that in lunar maria, is much smaller than the "saturation density" of lunar highlands. Many primeval craters, those from the last impacts which formed the planet, must have become erased, either by late impacts of preferentially surviving large asteroids or by a primeval atmosphere which rapidly escaped. The tenuous Martian atmosphere may have originated entirely from outgassing of surface rocks by asteroidal impacts, which also could have produced some molten lava. The role of genuine volcanism on Mars must have been insignificant, if any. The large amplitude in temperature indicates that the Martian upper soil, equally in the bright and the dark areas, is of a porous unconsolidated structure, with a thermal conductivity as low as that of atmospheric air. Limb darkening at full phase in green, yellow, and red light indicates absorption by atmospheric haze, aerosols, and dust. The loss of contrast in the blue and violet is caused by stronger absorptivity of the haze, which is almost as dark as soot, and not by a true decrease in contrast of the surface markings. Photometric measurementsin the blue reveal a residual contrast of 5 to 7 percent between the markings in 1958, invisible to the eye at a time when there was no "blue clearing." The surface brightness of the maria was surprisingly uniform in 1958 (late summer in the southern hemisphere), while the continentes showed considerable variation. In view of the spotty microstructure of the Martian surface as revealed by Mariner IV, and the lack of a sharp border between a mare and a continens, it seems that all the difference consists in the relative number of small dark and bright areas in the surface mosaic. If there is vegetation on Mars, it should be concentrated in the darkarea elements, measuring 10 to 100 kilometers. Vegetation is the best hypothesis to account for seasonal changes in the maria and for the persistence of these formations despite dust storms of global extent. Survival of vegetation in the extreme dryness of the Martian climate could depend on the low night-time temperature and deposition of hoarfrost, which could melt into droplets after sunrise, before evaporating. If not vegetation, it must be something thing specifically Martian; no other hypothesis hitherto proposed is able to account for the facts. However, the infrared bands which at one time were thought to be associated with the presence of organic matter, belong to heavy water in the terrestrial atmosphere. The conversion of a former bright area into a dark one in 1954, over some 1 million square kilometers, is the largest recorded change of this kind. Even on the vegetation hypothesis, it eludes satisfactory explanation. Relatively bright areas observed in the blue and violet in polar regions and elsewhere on the limb can be explained by a greater transparency of the atmosphere,its dust content being decreased by a downward (anticyclonic) current. The surface, of a greater reflecting power than the atmospheric smoke, then becomes visible. The sudden explosion-like occurrence of yellow or gray clouds, reducing atmospheric transparency and surface contrast, could be due to impacts of asteroids; in such a case, however, the number of unobservable small asteroids, down to 30 to 40 meters in diameter, should greatly exceed the number extrapolated from the larger members of the group. A "meteoritic" increment in numbers, instead of the asteroidal one, would be required. special observations with large Schmidt telescopes could settle this crucial question. The Martian "oases," centers of "canal" systems, could be impact creters. The canals may be real formations, without sharp borders and 100 to 200 kilometers wide, due to a systematic alignment. of the dark surface elements. They may indicate cracks in the planet's crust, radiating from the point of impact.     

Martian dust storm: its depth on 25 november 1971

Carbon dioxide absorption on Mars was observed by Earth-based spectroscopy at 10,500 angstroms. Its abundance was equivalent to a partial pressure of 2.0 millibars instead of the normal 5.5 millibars. The dust layer was therefore opaque to a height of about 11 kilometers. On 10 December, a pressure of 5.8 millibars was found.     

2011年4月呼和浩特市一次沙尘天气的特征分析

应用Micaps实况资料,对2011年4月29-30日呼和浩特市沙尘天气的大尺度环流演变和物理量场分析,在分析的基础上初步探讨了该次沙尘天气过程中出现沙尘暴的必要触发条件,得出:蒙古气旋和冷锋是这次沙尘暴天气的主要影响系统;高空急流是诱发该次沙尘天气的一个重要因子;温度平流、层结不稳定、垂直速度、散度与此次沙尘天气从爆发到衰亡的发展过程有很好对应关系,有利于诱发该次沙尘天气。     

Determination of Venus Winds by Ground-Based Radio Tracking of the VEGA Balloons

A global array of 20 radio observatories was used to measure the three-dimensional position and velocity of the two meteorological balloons that were injected into the equatorial region of the Venus atmosphere near Venus midnight by the VEGA spacecraft on 11 and 15 June 1985. Initial analysis of only radial velocities indicates that each balloon was blown westward about 11,500 kilometers (8,000 kilometers on the night side) by zonal winds with a mean speed of about 70 meters per second. Excursions of the data from a model of constant zonal velocity were generally less than 3 meters per second; however, a much larger variation was evident near the end of the flight of the second balloon. Consistent systematic trends in the residuals for both balloons indicate the possibility of a solar-fixed atmospheric feature. Rapid variations in balloon velocity were often detected within a single transmission (330 seconds); however, they may represent not only atmospheric motions but also self-induced aerodynamic motions of the balloon.     

The impact cratering record on triton

Impact craters on Triton are scarce owing to the relatively recent resurfacing by icy melts. The most heavily cratered surface has a crater density about the same as the lunar maria. The transition diameter from simple to complex craters occurs at a diameter of about 11 kilometers, and the depth-diameter relationship is similar to that of other icy satellites when gravity is taken into account. The crater size-frequency distribution has a differential -3 slope (cumulative -2 slope) and is the same as that for the fresh crater population on Miranda. The most heavily cratered region is on the leading hemisphere in Triton's orbit. Triton may have a leading-trailing asymmetry in its crater population. Based primarily on the similarity of size distributions on Triton and Miranda and the relatively young surface on Triton, the source of Triton's craters is probably comets. The very peculiar size distribution of sharp craters on the "cantaloupe" terrain and other evidence suggests they are volcanic explosion craters.     

Dipping low-velocity layer in the mid-lower mantle: evidence for geochemical heterogeneity

Data from western United States short-period seismic networks reveal a conversion from an S to a P wave within a low seismic velocity layer (greater than or equal to the 4 percent velocity difference compared to the surrounding mantle) in the mid-lower mantle (1400 to 1600 kilometers deep) east of the Mariana and Izu-Bonin subduction zones. The low-velocity layer (about 8 kilometers thick) dips 30 degrees to 40 degrees southward and is at least 500 kilometers by 300 kilometers. Its steep dip, large velocity contrast, and sharpness imply a chemical rather than a thermal origin. Ancient oceanic crust subducted into the lower mantle is a plausible candidate for the low-velocity layer because of its broad thin extent.     

Surface and airborne evidence for plumes and winds on triton

Aeolian features on Triton that were imaged during the Voyager Mission have been grouped. The term "aeolian feature" is broadly defined as features produced by or blown by the wind, including surface and airborne materials. Observations of the latitudinal distributions of the features probably associated with current activity (known plumes, crescent streaks, fixed terminator clouds, and limb haze with overshoot) all occur from latitude -37 degrees to latitude -62 degrees . Likely indicators of previous activity (dark surface streaks) occur from latitude -5 degrees to -70 degrees , but are most abundant from -15 degrees to -45 degrees , generally north of currently active features. Those indicators which give information on wind direction and speed have been measured. Wind direction is a function of altitude. The predominant direction of the surface wind streaks is found to be between 40 degrees and 80 degrees measured clockwise from north. The average orientation of streaks in the northeast quadrant is 59 degrees . Winds at 1- to 3- kilometer altitude are eastward, while those at &8 kilometers blow west.     

土地利用类型变化对兰州市大气边界层特征影响的数值模拟

利用3个不同时期土地利用资料,对2012年6月份兰州强迫大气背景下陆面特征的USGS、MODIS以及卫星反演资料分别进行数值模拟,并与土地利用类型变化对兰州边界层的影响进行了对比分析.结果表明,WRF模式在高分辨率（1 km）下,模拟积分稳定,数据改变前后能较好地模拟兰州市区大气边界层特征;土地利用类型的改变对中尺度的环流形势没有影响;温度场上山谷温度明显高于山区温度,表现为热岛效应,且高度越低强度越大;不断改变土地利用类型,代表城市化进程,影响城市边界层高度且其不断增加,改变地表能量特征且其不断增加,土壤湿度不断减少.     

乌兰布和沙漠东北部近地层沙尘水平通量和降尘量变化特征分析

研究沙尘随高度的变化特征对揭示沙尘物质在近地层分布特征具有重要意义。通过收集乌兰布和沙漠东北部近地层50 m沙尘水平通量和降尘量数据,研究了该区域防护林对沙尘水平和垂直通量变化特征的影响。结果表明:(1)沙尘水平通量及降尘量均随高度的增加而减小,防护林内二者与高度的关系符合幂函数,防护林外二者与高度的关系符合指数函数;(2)沙尘水平通量与降尘量之间为正相关关系,二者可用线性函数表示;(3)沙尘水平通量和降尘量均与风速呈现线性关系。     

福州大气污染日与气象条件关系

利用2008-2012年福州市大气污染逐日监测资料确定福州市大气污染日,并分析了其天气形势、地面气象资料及高空探测资料。结果表明,易产生大气污染日的气象特征包括:500 hPa高度场关键区被弱暖平流控制或冷空气势力较弱;850 hPa高度场关键区等高线稀疏,没有明显的天气系统;850 hPa以下大气一般存在逆温层、湿层与风向突变层,大气水平、垂直交流不畅,属静稳大气,易造成大气污染物堆积。大气污染日出现频率较高的海平面气压场类型有:大陆高压脊型、变性冷高压前部型、变性冷高压底部型或后部型、锋前暖区型、均压场型、地面倒槽暖区型。     

Atmospheric imaging results from the Mars exploration rovers: Spirit and Opportunity

A visible atmospheric optical depth of 0.9 was measured by the Spirit rover at Gusev crater and by the Opportunity rover at Meridiani Planum. Optical depth decreased by about 0.6 to 0.7% per sol through both 90-sol primary missions. The vertical distribution of atmospheric dust at Gusev crater was consistent with uniform mixing, with a measured scale height of 11.56 +/- 0.62 kilometers. The dust's cross section weighted mean radius was 1.47 +/- 0.21 micrometers (mm) at Gusev and 1.52 +/- 0.18 mm at Meridiani. Comparison of visible optical depths with 9-mm optical depths shows a visible-to-infrared optical depth ratio of 2.0 +/- 0.2 for comparison with previous monitoring of infrared optical depths.     

秦巴山区一次致灾冰雹过程分析

利用常规资料、多普勒雷达及自动站等资料,对秦巴山区一次致灾冰雹过程综合分析。结果表明,此次强对流天气是在高空前倾槽东移过程中产生的,中低层切变线为对流的发生提供了动力条件,地面辐合线是此次强冰雹天气的触发机制;适宜的0℃和-20℃层高度、地面暖低压和特殊的“喇叭口”地形等有利于强冰雹天气的发生;冰雹发生在低空急流左前方、高空急流出口区的左侧和地面辐合线附近。较强不稳定层结和垂直风切变是导致对流快速发展并维持的原因之一;多普勒雷达反射率因子图上对流单体中心强度大于68 dBZ且维持5个体扫,有超级单体生成;反射率因子剖面图上有有界弱回波、回波悬垂等出现;速度图上具有低层辐合和中气旋等特征;在反射率因子和速度图上均可看到三体散射;VIL跃增和骤降的时间与冰雹发生的时间相对应。