Influence of methyl bromide soil fumigation method on fungicidal efficacy and bromide residues

Highest inorganic bromine residues (30 ppm) were found when soil was fumigated with liquid methyl bromide (MB) introduced by conventional means into evaporating dishes. With preheated (vaporized) MB or injection of MB/chloropicrin (CP) mixtures, bromide concentrations were reduced by 50%. They were uniform throughout the soil (0 to 60 cm) except after MB/CP injection, when larger residues were found in the 30-60 cm layer. Leaching with 2000 m^p3/ha (20 cm) of water always reduced bromide content to 7.5 and 10 ppm at the 0-30 and 30-60 cm depth, respectively. Organic amendments to soils substantially increased bromide levels up to 118 ppm, most of which was found in the upper soil layers; two teachings with 2000 m^p3 /ha water were required to return the soils to their normal state.Sclerotium rolfsii andFusarium oxysporum f. sp.dianthi cultures buried in soil were eliminated from the upper 30 cm with MB applied either conventionally or preheated. At 50 cm, 500 kg/ha of the preheated gas was superior to 1000 kg/ha of the cold gas. All MB fumigations suppressed carnation flower yields compared with CP alone but were superior to no treatment. After leaching, MB-fumigated soils yielded the highest number of flowers.     

Bromine residues in potato and wheat crops grown in soil fumigated with methyl bromide

The bromine content of potato tubers grown in soil fumigated with methyl bromide at 487 and 975 kg/ha (1 lb and 2 lb/100 ft2) averaged 170 and 280 mg/kg of dry weight. Most of the bromine was in the outer layers of the tubers; peeled tubers has less than 100 mg/kg, which remained after boiling. Potato haulm contained 4000 or 6700 mg/kg bromine respectively for the two rates of application. The bromine content of wheat grain grown after potatoes depended on the rate of application of methyl bromide and the time interval between treatment and wheat crop. Wheat grain harvested 31/2 21/2 and 11/2 years after fumigation with methyl bromide at 975 kg/ha had mean bromine contents of 4.5, 15 and 44 mg/kg. but the amounts in grain from plots having the same treatments varied more than two-fold; wheat grain harvested 11/2 years after fumigation at 487 kg/ha contained 23 mg bromine/kg. Wheat yields were unaffected by fumigation.     

Distribution of methyl bromide in soils treated for nematode control in replant vineyards

Methyl bromide was applied with and without polyethylene covers at rates of 337, 449, 673 and 898 kg/ha to replant vineyard soils to control plant parasitic nematodes. Distribution of the gas in the soil atmosphere at different depths was measured by gas chromatography. Higher doses, low soil moisture and deeper placement of methyl bromide resulted in more rapid soil penetration and higher concentrations of the gas at the deeper soil levels. Placement of methyl bromide in the soil at 0.76-0.81 m without polyethylene cover resulted in gas distribution at concentrations sufficient for nematode kill as deep as 2.44 m.     

The effect of methyl bromide fumigation on rhizomania inoculum in the field

The first outbreak of rhizomania disease in the UK occurred in 1987 and was limited to a single sugar-beet crop in Suffolk. In an attempt to prevent the spread of this disease, the crop was first destroyed by herbicide. In 1988, to reduce the level of rhizomania still present in the soil, the field was treated with methyl bromide at a rate of 900 kg/ha prior to seeding for permanent pasture. Levels of methyl bromide were monitored during the fumigation. A mean concentration time product of 5500 mgh/1 was achieved after 72 h at the soil surface and of 3300-4100 mg-h/1 at a soil depth of 0.3 m after 24 h. Soil samples were taken from five plots across the field before and after fumigation. In the plot with the highest initial inoculum levels, further samples were taken at three depths down to 0.61 m. Sugar-beet seedlings were grown in all soil samples as a bait test for rhizomania inoculum. The presence or absence of Polymyxa betae was observed by microscopical examination, and an enzyme-linked immunoassay was used for the detection of beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV). The results showed that the methyl bromide treatment had reduced rhizomania inoculum and BNYVV in the soil to levels that were undetectable by the procedures used.     

Loss of Viability of Dematophora necatrix in Solarized Soils

To study the relationship between temperature regimes and loss of viability of Dematophora necatrix in soil, two field experiments were conducted to determine the effectiveness of soil solarization on reducing the population of D. necatrix colonizing avocado root segments buried at a depth of 15–60cm. Increase of maximum hourly temperatures attributable to soil solarization reached, depending on depth, 6.7–4.6°C in unshaded areas and 3.9–1.5°C for shaded areas in the first experiment (starting in early June, 1995). The better environmental conditions in the second experiment (starting by mid-July, 1995) led to higher temperature increases (8.6–5.6°C, depending on depth) when solarization was conducted in unshaded areas. One, 4, 5 and 6 weeks of solarization were required to eliminate the viability of D. necatrix at 15, 30, 45 and 60cm depths in the first experiment, whereas only 8, 10, 15 and 22 days of solarization were needed for the loss of viability of D. necatrix at the same depths in the second experiment. In shaded areas, however, soil solarization attained significant effectiveness at 15cm depth.Regression analyses of fungal viability (ln-transformed data) over accumulated temperature–time showed best fits when the minimum threshold temperature was 30°C. Although eradication of D. necatrix in soil can be achieved down to 60cm depth in solarized plots, and at 15cm depth in unsolarized unshaded plots, the accumulation of temperature–time appeared less effective in reducing inoculum viability in the latter.     

Comparison of conventional and molecular methods for the detection of Rosellinia necatrix in avocado orchards in southern Spain

White root rot, caused by Rosellinia necatrix , is one of the most important diseases in avocado orchards and is particularly widespread on the Mediterranean seaboard of southern Spain. In this study, the presence of the pathogen in soil samples collected from the base of 47 plants showing different symptoms of canopy decline was assessed with a molecular detection method based on real-time Scorpion PCR. Results were compared with symptoms in the canopy and with the traditional method of isolation of R. necatrix from roots and/or bark. The fungus was isolated from 24 samples by the traditional method and from 37 soil samples by the molecular method (cycle threshold values 25·8 to 47·1), demonstrating the higher sensitivity and reliability of the molecular method. A single real-time PCR amplification was sufficient to detect R. necatrix in naturally infested soils. The avoidance of nested PCR has important practical implications because of the reduced costs and risk of cross contamination. Also, it enables faster sample analysis and is more appropriate for quantitative detection. A modified molecular method was also developed to detect R. necatrix in roots and in soils with very low populations of the pathogen.     

Integrated control of Rhizoctonia solani by methyl bromide and Trichoderma harzianum

Under laboratory conditions, isolate TH–203 of Trichoderma harzianum was found to be tolerant of up to 20 000 ppm methyl bromide (MB) (v/v), whereas the plant pathogen Rhizoctonia solani was susceptible to a dose of less than 9000 ppm (v/v). Exposure to sub–lethal concentrations of MB had no effect on the in vitro antagonistic ability of T. harzianum . Soil fumigation with MB at the equivalent of a commercial dose of 500 kg/ha did not reduce the population of Trichoderma in soil and allowed rapid colonization of Trichoderma to develop in the soil.
Under greenhouse conditions a combination of T. harzianum and a reduced dose of MB (equivalent to 200 kg/ha) completely controlled disease incidence of R. solani in bean seedlings compared with controls in untreated soils. Similar disease control was achieved with the recommended dose of MB. Under field conditions, the combination of 200 kg/ha MB and T. harzianum gave a significant synergistic effect on damping–off of carrot seedlings caused by R. solani , and had a similar effect on growth, yield and disease control to that of the recommended dose.
T. harzianum was also able to prevent reinfestation by R. solani in fumigated soils.     

Fusarium wilt of watermelon in Cyprus and its management with soil solarization combined with fumigation or ammonium fertilizers

Fusarium wilt is a limiting factor to watermelon production in Cyprus. In previous studies, soil solarization applied in 1-m-wide strips provided only partial disease control. In order to improve the effectiveness of solarization, three field experiments were carried out in heavily infested soils, using various solarization techniques, alone or in combination with methyl bromide fumigation or soil amendments with ammonium-based fertilizers. Increasing the width of the solarization strip from 1 to 2 m had no significant influence on its effectiveness. Solarization with a double rather than single polyethylene sheet, in either 1- or 2-m-wide strips, improved slightly the level of wilt control but had no significant effect on yield. Combined solarization–methyl bromide treatments, however, improved significantly the level of wilt control and increased marketable yield by up to 100% over that obtained with either method alone. The low rate of methyl bromide (50gm⁻²) was as effective as the normal rate used by growers (100 g m⁻). Soil amendment with ammonium-based fertilizers improved even more the effectiveness of solarization and increased yield by up to 200% over that obtained with solarization alone. Best results were obtained with ammonium sulphate or monoammonium phosphate at a rate equivalent to 180 kg N ha⁻¹.     

Effect of soil solarization on the control of Phytophthora root rot in avocado

Phytophthora root rot is of paramount importance in avocado orchards of southern Spain. Soil solarization has been demonstrated to control the pathogen in infested areas from which infected trees had been removed. We aimed to determine whether soil solarization in established avocado orchards controls the disease. Soil solarization increased average maximum hourly soil temperatures by 6.5–6.9°C in unshaded areas of avocado orchards in coastal areas of southern Spain, depending on depth and year. The corresponding temperatures in shaded areas were c. 2–3°C lower. P. cinnamomi in soil, on infected avocado rootlets, and in a nutrient substrate buried at 30–60 cm depth was reduced to negligible amounts after 6–8 weeks of solarization in both unshaded and shaded locations of avocado orchards. P. cinnamomi could not be detected in avocado rootlets up to 14 months later, suggesting a long-term effect. Soil solarization did not affect growth of the trees, and fruit yields were increased as compared with control plots. Following soil solarization for 3 weeks from mid-July 1994, when maximum hourly temperatures reached 33–36°C, P. cinnamomi could not be recovered from a depth of up to 45 cm in unshaded areas or from a depth of up to 30 cm in shaded areas after the initial 10-day period. The viability of inoculum of the pathogen buried at depths between 15 and 60 cm in bare soil was determined by sequential sampling in two solarization experiments starting 12 June and 4 July 1995, respectively. In the first experiment, P. cinnamomi could not be detected at any depth after 4–8 weeks of solarization in unshaded areas but could be recovered at all depths except 15 cm in shaded areas. In the second experiment, where temperatures were higher and the soil surface not shaded, P. cinnamomi could not be recovered after 2 weeks at 15 and 30 cm.     

Methyl bromide and PCNB for sclerotium crown rot control in iris

Methyl bromide (MB) at rates of 500, 1000 and 1500 kg/ha, Terraclor 75 WP (PCNB) at 150 and 300 kg/ha, and combinations of the two, were studied for control ofSclerotium rolfsii prior to iris cultivation. Sclerotia buried 10 cm deep in soil were all killed by MB at 500 kg/ha; at greater depths higher doses were required. Bulbs harvested from PCNB- and PCNB + MB-treated plots were healthy; 75% of the bulbs in control plots were infected at harvest. When MB was used alone, the soil became re-infested (2–6% diseased plants). Bromide toxicity, correlated with the MB dose applied, appeared 41/2 months after planting; leaves yellowed and senesced prematurely. MB treatments also reduced bulb size, and residual phytotoxicity was found when the bulbs from treated plots were planted in the following year.     

Residues of atrazine, simazine, linuron and diuron after repeated annual applications in a peach orchard

Annual applications of the herbicides atrazine, simazine, linuron and diuron at 45 kg/ha were made to the same plots for 9 consecutive years from 1963 to 1971 in a peach (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch.) orchard located on sandy loam soil near Harrow, Ontario. Soil samples from these plots were collected in late October for the last 3 years (1969–1971) and trees were cut down in December, 1969. Herbicide residues were determined by bioassays based on the fresh and dry weight of oats (Avena sativa L.) and in one year results were confirmed by chemical analysis. Significant accumulation of herbicides was not observed. The maximum residue levels measured in October over the 3 years of sampling were 7′3 kg/ha for diuron, 3–8 kg/ha for linuron, 1–6 kg/ha for simazine and 04 kg/ha for atrazine in the top 15 cm of the soil profile. Simazine and atrazine showed a rapid decrease in amount after treatment but diuron and linuron were degraded more slowly. Measurable residues of all herbicides were confined to the upper 15 cm of the soil profile and the majority of herbicide remained in the 0–5-cm soil layer. Oats were planted in the orchard plots from 1972 to 1974 to follow the disappearance of the herbicides. All herbicides caused highly significant yield decreases in 1972, atrazine causing the least (38%) and diuron the greatest (86%) reductions. Diuron reduced the yield of oats in 1973 and caused a highly significant decrease in the weight of young oat plants in 1974.     

Comparisons of simulated with measured transport and transformation of methyl bromide gas in soils

A simulation model is described for the transport of the fumigant, methyl bromide gas, away from injection chisels within the field. The injected methyl bromide is assumed to form cylindrical, parallel sources at the depth of injection. Transport of the methyl bromide is described by radial diffusion from the injection cylinders. The dissolution-distillation of methyl bromide gas in the soil water and on soil particles is accounted for by a first-order reversible kinetic equation or by an equilibrium relationship. The hydrolysis of methyl bromide gas to bromide anion is considered to occur according to a first-order irreversible equation. The model considers cases where the soil surface is and is not covered with an impermeable barrier to the diffusion of the gas. Simulated methyl bromide concentrations in the soil air, and bromide concentrations in the soil, compared reasonably well with measured values from several field sites. Comparison of the results of calculations, with and without plastic barriers at the soil surface, with experimental data, indicate that plastic barriers are ineffective in preventing diffusion of gas from the soil to the atmosphere. Calculations of mass balances show that as much as 70% of the applied methyl bromide had escaped to the atmosphere by 14 days after fumigation.     

Persistence of terbacil and trifluralin under different soil and climatic conditions

Soil samples were collected from forty-three field trials conducted on ten soil types to investigate the residual activity of terbacil and trifluralin at the end of the cropping season, approximately 6 months after application. The soil was bioassayed in a glasshouse using soya beans and German millet for terbacil and trifluralin respectively. At 1 kg/ha terbacil phytotoxic residues occurred in a majority of the trials, while at 2 kg/ha such a carry-over could be found in every case. Trifluralin doses of up to 1 kg/ha did not persist in toxic amounts in most soils, while application of 2 kg/ha showed residual activity in 74% of the trials and application of 4 kg/ha killed German millet in all instances. Results are also presented from the time-rate dissipation studies conducted on both herbicides by assaying soil samples collected at monthly intervals. Both organic matter and clay content of the trial sites affected the persistence of terbacil, while trifluralin residues were influenced only by the soil organic matter content. Trial sites receiving high rainfall showed considerably less residues of terbacil, but the persistence of trifluralin was not affected by rainfall to any appreciable extent.     

Control of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cucumerinum of cucumbers by soil solarization with impermeable plastics and/or reduced doses of methyl bromide*

Soil solarization is not broadly adopted as a soil deinfestation method mainly because of its long duration (4–6 weeks). We present evidence showing that the duration of solarization can be reduced to nearly half using impermeable plastics and/or low doses of methyl bromide, while still ensuring effective control of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cucumerinum. Chlamydospores of a pathogenic isolate of F. o. cucumerinum, formed in sterile soil, were inserted into nylon mesh envelopes and incorporated into the soil prior to treatment at 20‐ and 30‐cm soil depths. Soil treatments included untreated control, soil solarization with polyethylene or impermeable plastics (LMG), and soil solarization with polyethylene or impermeable plastics plus 20 g m^?2 methyl bromide. According to the effects on artificial inocula of F. o. cucumerinum checked at weekly intervals for 4 weeks, soil solarization with impermeable plastics was most effective in destroying pathogen populations even two weeks after soil covering.     

OCCURRENCE AND PERSISTENCE OF PICLORAM IN GRASSLAND WATER SOURCES

Summary. At 2 weeks following application, concentrations of picloram in surface runoff water collected adjacent to a South Texas grassland treated with 1·1 kg/ha ranged from 0·055 to 0·184 ppm as detected by gas chromatography. Picloram in surface runoff water diminished with time and amount of rainfall as a decay function. Picloram was not detectable in a flowing stream 0·8 km below a 32-ha area treated with 1·1 kg/ha. Residual picloram was not detected in domestic water wells at any time up to 2 years following treatment of adjacent areas with 1·1 kg/ha.
Dissipation of picloram from treated livestock-watering ponds was concentration-dependent, with the final losses resulting largely from dilution. Initial loss rates in the ponds ranged from 14 to 18%/day but decreased to less than 1%/day at 100 days following treatment. After 100 days, when the concentrations were less than 0·005 ppm, the primary changes in picloram content appeared to be due to dilution from rainfall or to concentration by runoff from adjacent treated areas.     

THE PERSISTENCE AND PENETRATION OF LARGE DOSES OF SIMAZINE IN UNCROPPED SOIL

Summary. The residues remaining in the soil from repeated annual application of simazine at 2–8, 5–6, and 22–4 kg/ha to uncropped plots on a loam soil were measured by chemical or bioassay methods at various intervals after treatment.
The total simazine residue present 12 months after the last of three treatments with 2–8 kg/ha and 8 months after the last of five treatments with 5–6 kg/ha was less than 10% of the annual dose. This rapid decomposition is considered consistent with the soil and climatic conditions. In contrast a much larger residue (a mean value of 1·7 kg/ha) was found on plots sampled 21/2 years after the last of two annual applications of simazine at 22·4 kg/ha and the reduction in the amount of residue during the next 12 months was only of the order of 25%.
In all treatments the highest concentration of simazine was found in the surface layers of the soil but measurable residues were detected to 60 cm depth, 31/2 years after the last 22·4 kg/ha application.
There was considerable variation in the total residues recovered between replicate plots and between different positions on the same plots in all treatments regardless of the depth of the sample. The possible causes of this variation are discussed.
Persistance et pénétration de fortes doses de simazine dans un sol non cultivé     

Effects of sodium azide and methyl bromide on soil bacterial populations,enzymic activities and other biological variables

The application of a granular formulation of sodium azide (Smite 8G), to pine nursery beds at rates of 0, 22.4, 67.2 and 134.5 kg active ingredient ha^?1 under water seal or plastic seal, was compared over a 1-year period with methyl bromide, applied at a rate of 650 kg ha^?1, to determine the effects of soil bacterial populations, soil enzymic activities, development of mycorrhizal roots, weed population and incidence of root diseases. Bacterial populations at 24 days after treatment had increased in proportion to the amount of sodium azide added; however, highest numbers of bacteria were recorded from the methyl bromide-treated plot. At the last sampling date no significant differences were observed in bacterial populations among treatments. Neither sodium azide nor methyl bromide caused permanent changes in soil enzymic activities or adversely affected mycorrhizal root development on pine seedlings. Sodium azide at 134.5 kg ha^?1 and methyl bromide both significantly decreased the number of Cyperus spp. plants in plots; however, the number of pine seedlings exhibiting a root disease was highest in plots receiving these treatments.     

异丙草胺在玉米和土壤中的残留及消解动态

采用气相色谱-微池电子俘获检测器(GC-μECD)测定了900 g/L异丙草胺乳油在土壤、玉米植株和玉米籽粒中的消解动态和最终残留。土壤、玉米植株和籽粒样品用石油醚-丙酮(1∶1,体积比)提取,经液液萃取,弗罗里硅土柱净化,GC-μECD检测,外标法定量。结果表明:异丙草胺在各供试样品中的添加水平为0.011～1.1 mg/kg时,回收率在78.8%～96.4%之间,相对标准偏差(RSD)为0.54%～10.5%;在土壤、玉米植株和籽粒中的定量限(LOQ)均为0.011 mg/kg。异丙草胺在土壤和玉米植株中的半衰期,2009年分别为4.7～5.3 d和4.1～4.5 d,2010年分别为5.4～5.5 d和4.9～5.4 d。按推荐高剂量(有效成分)2 400 g/hm2及其1.5倍剂量(3 600 g/hm2)施药,于玉米苗后茎叶初期施药1次,在玉米乳熟期和成熟期时,玉米籽粒中异丙草胺的最终残留量均低于定量限。玉米收获时(距施药45 d),土壤和玉米中的异丙草胺残留量均低于参考的MRL值(0.1 mg/kg),说明按规定在玉米田使用900 g/L的异丙草胺乳油是安全的。     

丁虫腈在玉米和土壤中的残留及消解动态

建立了丁虫腈在土壤、玉米植株及玉米籽粒中残留的气相色谱分析方法。玉米植株和籽粒样品用乙腈提取,经Oasis HLB固相萃取柱净化;土壤样品用丙酮提取,经液-液萃取净化,气相色谱-电子捕获检测器(GC-ECD)检测,外标法定量。结果表明:在0.01、0.05和0.5 mg/kg 3个添加水平下,丁虫腈的回收率为80%~86%,相对标准偏差(RSD)为5.1%~8.0%;其在土壤、玉米植株及籽粒中的定量限(LOQ)均为0.01 mg/kg。采用所建立的方法对丁虫腈在玉米和土壤中的残留及消解动态进行研究的结果表明:丁虫腈在土壤和玉米植株中的半衰期分别为6.77和2.44 d。采用5%的丁虫腈乳油按推荐高剂量(有效成分)37.5 g/hm2及其1.5倍该剂量(56.25 g/hm2)于玉米苗后茎叶初期施药1次,在玉米乳熟期和成熟期时,玉米籽粒中丁虫腈的最终残留量均低于定量限;玉米收获时(距施药90 d),籽粒中丁虫腈的残留量均低于参考的MRL值(0.02 mg/kg,氟虫腈在谷物中的最大残留限量)。     

Herbicides in Cotton—Combinations of Trifluralin with Other Products

Abstract

Results are given of a trial in which trifluralin, incorporated in the soil, at rates of 0.5 and 0.75 kg/ha, was combined with fluometuron at 1.6 kg/ha, and with prometryne at 1.0 kg/ha, both incorporated, pre- and post-em. and with noruron + MSMA (1.0:2.2) at 1.7 kg/ha post-em.

Best results were given by incorporated treatments of trifluralin + fluometuron (0.5 + 1.6) kg/ha, or by trifluralin incorporated at 0.5 or 0.75 kg/ha + fluometuron applied pre-em. at 1.6 kg/ha, or by trifluralin incorported at 0.75 kg/ha + prometryne applied pre-em. at 1.0 kg/ha.

It is recommended that noruron + MSMA (1.0:2.2) at 1.7 kg/ha be applied post-em. as a complementary treatment to trifluralin at 0.5 kg/ha in fields where Cyperus spp. are a problem.