Combining Plant Growth with Nutrient Content Measurements as a Method to Compare Nutrient Use by Different Raspberry Cultivars

ABSTRACT

Monthly above-ground destructive sampling and partitioning of the plant into distinct component parts for growth and nutrient element (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, B, Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn) analyses were used to compare elemental compositions in two red raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) cultivars (‘Willamette’ and ‘Haida’) grown in a uniformly managed field plot. Quantitative measurements showed that the two cultivars had different growth patterns. ‘Haida’ yielded greater fresh berry weight and dry matter content than ‘Willamette’ on a per floricane basis, but, because of fewer ‘Haida’ than ‘Willamette’ floricanes in the plot after standard commercial pruning practices, fresh berry yield was similar for both cultivars on a unit area basis. ‘Haida’ berries ripened slightly earlier than ‘Willamette’. Stem, lateral and leaf growth differed between the two cultivars. Although only whole above-ground accumulation (kg ha-1) of one (Ca) of the ten elements measured was different in the two cultivars, the amounts and patterns of all nutrients in the various plant components of floricanes and primocanes differed in significant ways. In some cases, element concentrations in a specific plant component differed between cultivars while dry matter accumulation differed in the opposite way resulting in the same total accumulation in the cane involved. In other cases, there was greater accumulation in one cane type (primocane vs. floricane) than the other such that there was similar accumulation of that element in the whole plant. For Ca, accumulation in primocanes was greater for ‘Willamette’ than ‘Haida’ whereas there was no difference of accumulation in floricanes which resulted in greater accumulation of Ca in the whole above-ground plant in ‘Willamette’. Maximum accumulation of the elements in floricanes occurred generally earlier in the growing season (July to September) than in primocanes (September to October), and these maxima were frequently at different times for the two cultivars, making comparisons of nutrient compositions in the two cultivars complex. Detailed sampling periodically over the growing season in combination with element analysis of these raspberry plant components as done in this study provided a better basis for comparing nutrients in raspberry cultivars than examining element concentrations of a specific plant component (e.g., leaves) sampled once during the growing season because patterns of nutrients over time in the cultivars differed.     

Fusarium avenaceum, Haupterreger der Himbeerrutenkrankheit in Norddeutschland

In 2006–2008, fungi responsible for raspberry cane blight symptoms in Northern Germany included Fusarium avenaceum, Leptosphaeria coniothyrium, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Botrytis cinerea (listed in order of decreasing importance). These pathogens and their symptoms are briefly described. Fusarium avenaceum has been chiefly responsible for the severe recent outbreaks of cane blight in Northern Germany, where it is ubiquitous on cultivated and wild raspberries. In 2007 infections took place during a period of wetness in mid-May and were associated with the natural formation of epidermal cracks by the expanding primocanes, but not with infestations by the gall midge (Resseliella theobaldi) which began on June 6th. In 2008, a prolonged drought throughout May and June caused a delay of F. avenaceum infections until mid-July, by which time R. theobaldi had already extensively colonised primocanes. In addition to living infected primocanes, dead above-ground cane stumps and cane fragments were the main overwintering substrates for F. avenaceum. Implications for possible crop hygiene measures against F. avenaceum are discussed.     

树莓不同结果型品种生长发育和开花结实特性的研究

调查了树莓夏季结果型品种早红、澳洲红、托拉米、费尔杜德和夏秋两季结果型品种秋福、顶峰在沈阳地区的生长发育规律和开花结实特性。结果表明,夏季结果型品种当年萌发枝条有2次生长高峰,分别在6月中旬—7月中旬及8月初—9月初,10月初停止生长,11月初进入休眠期,翌年枝条长度和粗度都不增加,6月初—7月末开花结果,采收期25～30d;夏秋两季结果型品种秋福和顶峰分别在夏季和秋季2次开花结果,1a生枝的集中生长期在6月中旬—7月末,8月初枝条长度停止增加,果实采收期从8月中旬—10月上中旬,约50d,翌年枝条的生长和开花结实特性与夏季结果型相同。树莓果实生长发育从开花到成熟夏季需25～33d,秋季需36～38d。果实成熟前1周直径增加最快。     

Cane Morphology and Anatomy Influence Freezing Tolerance in Vitis vinifera Cabernet franc

In 2014 and 2015, Ohio vineyards were exposed to multiple freeze events of –20 °C or lower, resulting in vine dieback, i.e., complete damage of above ground parts in Vitis vinifera. Grapevines that sustained dieback were rehabilitated for trunk replacement by training 1-year-old shoots with two distinct morphologies, based on internode diameter of large (L) and normal (N). This study evaluated the impact of cane morphology (L and N) in V. vinifera Cabernet franc on freezing tolerance (FT) of bud, phloem, and xylem tissues in relation to their respective anatomical structures and carbohydrate concentrations. Compared to N canes (7–9-mm diameter), L canes (10–15 mm) in Cabernet franc were considered vigorous and had the following morphological characteristics: long and heavy, with long and wide internode, and presence of numerous laterals. Furthermore, cane anatomy was also different with L canes having a significantly higher number of vascular transport units, xylem vessels, and phloem fibers than those in N canes. Freezing tolerance of buds and phloem was also different between the two cane types, with L canes being more cold sensitive than N canes, especially during fall acclimation and late-winter deacclimation. Sugar concentrations, however, were not different between L and N canes. These results suggest that cane morphology and anatomy play a significant role in affecting FT and the large and abundant anatomical structures of phloem and xylem contributed to the reduced FT of these tissues. In all practicality, this study suggests the best cultural practice for trunk replacement, and vine recovery should include the removal of the undesirable vigorous and cold sensitive canes during pruning.     

The Response of Malling Jewel And Malling Exploit Raspberries to Different Soil Moisture Conditions and Straw Mulching

The raspberry varieties Mailing Jewel and Mailing Exploit were used to study growth and crop responses to mulching and irrigation from 1957 to 1962 inclusive.

Treatment A consisted of a wheat straw mulch applied deeply enough to form a complete surface cover; treatments B and C of water applications on unmulched cultivated soil at soil moisture tensions of 20 cm. and 50 cm. of mercury respectively, measured at 1 ft. depth. Treatment B was changed after i960 to a single 2-in. water application given when the raspberry fruits began to ripen. Plots under treatment D were cultivated, unwatered and unmulched.

Irrigation greatly increased the rate of cane growth but this was found to be a disadvantage in raspberries grown as continuous rows because the new cane tended to chafe and obscure ripe berries. Restricting irrigation to the pre-picking period reduced height growth but did not appear to reduce cane numbers or crop yield. Crop yield was increased by irrigation to about 30% more than was produced on the unwatered and unmulched plots, mainly as a result of increased berry size, but the full effect of irrigation on yield was not realized because cane numbers and height were restricted. Under the conditions of this experiment, in which the canes were thinned to a given density and tipped to a given height, a single 2-in. application of water at the commencement of ripening, i.e. when the berries showed the first tinge of pink, was a very economic irrigation treatment. Irrigation slightly delayed ripening, probably because of the harder tipping required by the irrigated canes.

The mulch conserved the equivalent of 2 in. of moisture and was intermediate in effect between the irrigation treatments B and C and treatment D in height growth, crop yield and berry size, but had a depressing effect on the production of new canes by the weaker-growing variety Mailing Jewel.     

Studies in Growth and Development in the Genus Fragaria I. Factors Affecting the Rate of Leaf Production in Royal Sovereign Strawberry

The Raspberry Cane Midge is principally important as a precursor of the fungal disease “ Midge Blight This disease may kill a substantial proportion of the canes of varieties such as Newburgh and Mailing Enterprise before they can bear fruit in the following spring (Pitcher and Webb, 1952) ; in addition, the yield of many of the surviving canes is reduced. Fortunately the midge is not a universal pest of raspberries ; in Britain its range is restricted to the south and the Midlands and several varieties, such as Norfolk Giant and Mailing Landmark, are highly resistant.     

Production of high yielding red raspberry long canes in a Northern climate

Techniques for the production of raspberry long canes with high yield potential were studied on a research station and in two commercial nurseries in South Norway. Potted ‘Glen Ample’ plants were grown in the open and in polyethylene greenhouses during two seasons in order to optimize cultural practices. Dates of propagation and transfer to the production sites were varied. Following cold storage from December to early June, the canes were tipped (cut) at 160 cm height and grown in open plastic tunnels in the fruiting season for the evaluation of growth and yield performance. Remarkable berry yields of 1.5–3.8 kg per plant (cane) were regularly achieved. When grown in the open, later starts than June 1 (June 15 and July 1) successively reduced yields. On the other hand, an earlier start involves risks of growth cessation due to low spring temperature. When grown in greenhouses, high yields were still possible when plants were transferred from propagation conditions as late as July 1, although optimal yields of nearly 4 kg per plant were obtained with transfer on June 15. In a year with unusually high summer temperatures, the yields of canes produced in the open and in greenhouses did not vary significantly, whereas in the second year with normal summer temperatures, canes produced in greenhouses consistently out-yielded those produced in the open by about 1 kg per cane. Regression analyses revealed that high yields were associated with fruiting cane architecture traits such as cane height, number and length of laterals, and a low proportion of dormant buds. The single most important component was lateral length which alone accounted for 82% of the yield variation. Since lateral lengths increased from the shoot tip towards the base, cane heights in excess of 2 m are required for the attainment of top yields as the uppermost nodes with short and low-yielding laterals then can be eliminated by tipping.     

A leaf-blotch disorder of tayberry associated with the leaf and bud mite (Phyllocoptes gracilis) and some effects of three aphid-borne viruses

Tayberry plants showing conspicuous chlorotic blotches, ringspots, leaf distortion and lacking vigour were found at two sites in Scotland. The severity of the symptoms and the number of plants affected increased annually and reached 100% incidence at one site. No mechanically transmissible virus was detected in affected plants, but many such plants and some symptomless ones contained viruses indistinguishable in Rubus indicator plants from black raspberry necrosis, raspberry leaf mottle and raspberry leaf spot viruses. Propagants from healthy tayberry plants graft-inoculated either with these three viruses, singly and in combinations, or with scions from symptom-bearing tayberry, showed a faint chlorotic mottle when grown outdoors or in an unheated glasshouse but none developed the severe symptoms observed in the field. Leaves and buds of field-affected plants were found to be infested with large numbers of eriophyid mites at both sites. A single application of vamidothion to affected plants at one site resulted in significantly fewer mites and less severe symptoms on fruiting canes and primocanes than on unsprayed plants in the year of spraying and a further decrease in symptoms in the following year. The symptomatology, occurrence in Scotland and the decrease in symptoms following the application of vamidothion indicate that the disorder is caused by infestations by the leaf and bud mite (Phyllocoptes gracilis).     

Experiments on Correcting Magnesium Deficiency in Glasshouse Tomatoes

The raspberry moth causes serious damage to cultivated raspberries during certain years, particularly in the Scottish fruit-growing areas where it is a major pest. In the south of England it is less abundant, although in recent years there have been indications that it may become more widespread and plentiful there (Massee, 1939, 1942, 1946).

The female moth lays eggs during June and July in the fleshy tissue at the base of the corolla and androecium. The larva, on hatching from the egg, feeds for a short time on the surface tissue of the developing fruitlet, but within a few days it penetrates into the fruit to feed on the fleshy receptacle. During this period it casts its skin once. From the fruit the second instar larva migrates in search of a place in which to hibernate. Hibernacula appear to be situated mostly in the soil close to the roots of the raspberry plants. Prior to hibernation taking place, the larva moults for the second time, so that it passes the winter as a third instar larva.

With the approach of spring, at the time when the raspberry buds are bursting, the larva leaves its hibernaculum and crawls up a cane until it finds a suitable bud into which it eats a tunnel through the closely packed leaflets. Sometimes a larva, after having consumed the contents of its first bud, leaves it and attacks a second bud which, by this time, may have developed into a young lateral two to three inches long. The larva, which infests a single bud during its spring life, pupates in that bud, but that which infests more than one bud pupates on tie-wires, leaves, canes, supporting posts or similar places. During its spring life the larva passes through another two instars (the fourth and fifth) before pupating.

The full-grown larva prepares for pupation by spinning a white silk cocoon in some suitable place. This takes approximately five days to complete. Within the cocoon the larva pupates and the pupa remains for a period of three weeks.

Adult moths appear in June and are abundant during the second half of the month. Egg- laying then commences and a new generation of the species begins.

The summer larvae, which hatch during July from eggs laid in the flowers by the female moths, do little damage to the fruit because they are very small and their feeding is largely confined to the receptacle tissue.

The most serious damage is perpetrated by the larvae which emerge from hibernation in early spring and bore into the developing buds and laterals. Although their primary buds are killed by the caterpillars these are usually replaced by secondary buds; if these in their turn are largely destroyed by migrating caterpillars the plant’s recovery is prevented because there are no further replacements to overcome the second wave of attack.     

The effect of cane orientation on flower production in kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa)

Summary

The effects of training replacement canes of kiwifruit either downwards (45° below horizontal) on a T-bar support, or upwards on a 60° sloping trellis were studied during one season. Training canes upwards reduced the percentage bud burst by 19% and the number of flowers per cane by 20%. There was no significant effect on the growth rate of the apical shoot, or on the number of flowers per flowering shoot. The timing of bud burst and flowering were not affected by cane orientation. The implications of these results for vine management techniques are discussed.     

Assessment of morphological changes and determination of best cane collection time for 140 RU and 5 BB

This study was carried out to assess morphological changes in the canes of 140 Ru and 5 BB and to determine best time for cane collection. The first part of the study included the morphological assessment of the rootstock canes during the winters of 2003–2004 and 2004–2005. Canes collected in the second part of the study in 2005–2006 were grown in pots to relate the changes with the vegetative growth characteristics.     

树莓夏秋两季结果型品种顶峰生物学特性的研究

试验调查了树莓夏秋两季结果型品种顶峰的生长发育和开花结实特性.结果表明:品种顶峰分别在同一年的夏季和秋季两次开花结果,每年的6月下旬到7月下旬2a生枝结果即夏季结果期,果实生长发育从开花到成熟需28d,采收期近1个月,结果后枝条自然枯萎死亡;顶峰的秋季结果期为8月中旬到9月末,结果部位为1a生枝的中上部,果实生长发育需36d,采收期长达46d,采收后11月初枝条进入休眠.顶峰1a生枝的长度在6月上旬和7月上旬增加迅速,7月中旬停止增加,粗度的快速增加集中在6月上旬和7月份,8月初粗度停止增加,2a生枝的长度和粗度都不增加.     

Cantharid beetle feeding damage to Rubus plants in eastern Scotland

SUMMARY

In May 1991 the stems of expanding fruiting laterals of red raspberry (Rubus idaeus) in plantations inTayside, easternScotland were extensively chewed by adults of Cantharis obscura L. (Coleoptera: Cantharidae). This appears to be the firstrecord of damage to plants by this group of insects in the UK. In choice tests, the adultbeetles damaged excised fruitinglaterals of both cultivated black raspberry (R. occidentalis) cv. Cumberland, and red raspberry cv. Glen Prosen, but did little damage to other closely related Rubus species and hybrids, including wild bramble (R. fruticosus agg.) and wild red raspberry (R. idaeus var. vulgatus).     

Effects of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) on yield,growth and nutrient contents in organically growing raspberry

During 2003 and 2005, plant growth promoting effects of two Bacillus strains OSU-142 (N₂-fixing) and M3 (N₂-fixing and phosphate solubilizing) were tested alone or in combinations on organically grown primocane fruiting raspberry (cv. Heritage) plants in terms of yield, growth, nutrient composition of leaves and variation of soil nutrient element composition in the province of Erzurum, Turkey. The results showed that Bacillus M3 treatment stimulated plant growth and resulted in significant yield increase. Inoculation of raspberry plant roots and rhizosphere with M3 and/or OSU-142 + M3, significantly increased yield (33.9% and 74.9%), cane length (13.6% and 15.0%), number of cluster per cane (25.4% and 28.7%) and number of berries per cane (25.1% and 36.0%) compared with the control, respectively. In addition, N, P and Ca contents of raspberry leaves with OSU-142 + M3 treatment, and Fe and Mn contents of the leaves of raspberry with M3 and OSU-142 + M3 applications significantly improved under organic growing conditions. Bacterial applications also significantly effected soil total N, available P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn contents and pH. Available P contents in soil was determined to be increased from 1.55 kg P₂O₅/da at the beginning of the study to 2.83 kg P₂O₅/da by OSU-142, to 5.36 kg P₂O₅/da by M3 and to 4.71 kg P₂O₅/da by OSU-142 + M3 treatments. The results of this study suggest that Bacillus M3 alone or in combination with Bacillus OSU-142 have the potential to increase the yield, growth and nutrition of raspberry plant under organic growing conditions.     

Ursache des Triebsterbens an Heidelbeeren in Norddeutschland: Schadpilze oder Winterfrost?

In the summer of 2010 and during the following two seasons, a twig dieback of blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum) was observed in southern Lower Saxony especially in younger plantations of the variety ‘Duke’. The sudden onset of a chlorosis and necrosis of individual twigs was associated with a destruction of the vascular cambium and with longitudinal streaks of brown discolourations in the xylem tissue deposited during the previous year. New shoots were often formed from the intact roots and from regions of older twigs located immediately above the soil surface. Potentially pathogenic fungi, including Godronia cassandrae, Phomopsis spp., Diplodia seriata, Pestalotiopsis sp., Paraconiothyrium sporulosum, Colletotrichum acutatum, Fusarium avenaceum and F. lateritium, were found sporadically on dead twigs, each fungus being present in 6 or fewer of the 12 plantations surveyed. Winter frost damage of xylem tissues was determined to be the main cause of the disease, facilitated by a delayed termination of vegetative growth which led to a lack of winter hardiness at the time-point of the first serious frost events.     

树莓越冬性研究

为了明确树莓露地越冬过程中致死原因,在沈阳地区,以栽培树莓(Rubus idaeus L.)品种美国22号(Royal-ty)、秋福(Autumn Bliss)、哈瑞太慈(Heritage)、胜利(Victory)为试材,以野生树莓牛叠肚(R.crataegifolius Bge.)为对照,在露地不防寒自然越冬过程中连续定期取茎,测定电导率、萌芽率、含水量,观察茎表皮变化,结合外界气温和湿度的变化,确定树莓越冬过程中关键致死原因和时期。结果表明,野生树莓牛叠肚在沈阳可露地越冬,4个栽培树莓品种均不能正常露地越冬。树莓露地越冬受气温和湿度的影响,露地越冬的茎经历持续低温后,春季气温回升时伴随空气湿度大幅度下降,导致茎抽条死亡,是树莓越冬致死的主要原因,其关键致死时期为2月8日至3月8日。试材越冬能力强弱排序为:牛叠肚树莓>哈瑞太慈>秋福>美国22号>胜利。     

Cane and bud number effect on yield components of non-irrigated grapes cv. ‘Yaghooti’

An experiment was conducted with non-irrigated vines (Vitis vinifera), in which the number of buds per cane and the number of canes per vine were varied. With increasing canes per plant the percentage bud-burst decreased. Cluster number and total yield increased with increasing the number of buds per vine. Cluster weight and sugar content decreased when vines were overloaded. Yield was positively correlated with cluster number and negatively correlated with sugar content. The position of the pruning-cut affected the percentage bud-burst only near the cut.     

Plant management of greenhouse roses. Flower cutting procedure

Flower-cutting technique of roses affects the production of succeeding crops. A comparison of different techniques was made using various cultivars. The principle factor affecting flower production was cane length. More flowers were produced from longer canes than are usually available with the method of cutting above the second 5-leaflet leaf. A second factor was cane-age. Cutting flowers below the flower joint with the carrying cane (“underhook cut”) resulted in decreased flower production when compared to an equal bud position of a younger cane. There were significant differences among cultivars in their response.     

Plant management of greenhouse roses. Lateral bud removal

Removal of sprouting lateral shoots in rose plants caused breaking of lateral accessory buds. The sprouting of accessory buds decreased toward cane base. Lateral-shoot removal also resulted in an increase in the leaf specific weight and chlorophyll content and an increase in the average root weight. The effect of de-shooting on the leaf abscission differed in canes of different positions on the plant.     

Molybdenum as a Plant Nutrient: II. The Effects of Molybdenum Deficiency on Some Horticultural and Agricultural Crop Plants in Sand Culture

For 12 genotypes of red raspberry, the expression of various fruiting lateral characteristics at different node positions on the cane is described by regression techniques. There was much variation in the expression of these characteristics in 1975. Lateral length and lateral node number usually increased towards the cane base; but in some genotypes the rate of increase was not constant and declined towards the base giving a curvilinear relationship. Reproductive characteristics such as fruit number were often constant for all cane node positions. These relationships differed in 1976 and 1977 but usually genotypes changed in a similar way. Where genotypes changed in a dissimilar way it was related to cane height in the previous year. Some factors which influence these developmental patterns and the possible role of the timing of floral initiation in determining them are discussed together with some practical implications.