Water status and drought stress in experimental gaps in managed and semi-natural silver fir--beech forests

The effect of gap characteristics, including gap age, vegetation cover, and stage of regeneration, on water balance and drought stress was studied over a four-year period in natural and experimental gaps of various sizes in Dinaric silver fir--beech forest in Slovenia. A medium gap, two experimental clear-cut gaps, and a closed stand were selected in a traditional irregular shelterwood managed forest, and an irregular-shaped natural gap and part of the stand were selected in a semi-natural forest. Soil moisture, throughfall, and stemflow were measured in the gaps and stands, and incident precipitation was monitored in the open area. Evapotranspiration and drainage water fluxes were estimated using the water balance model BROOK90. To estimate drought stress, the ratio between simulated actual and potential evapotranspiration was used. Precipitation in the 2001 and 2003 growing seasons was considerably less than that in 2002 and 2004. The highest drainage fluxes were in the newly created clear-cut gaps with sparse ground vegetation cover, followed by the natural gap and medium gap, which had older and denser natural tree regeneration. On average, the clear-cut gap drainage fluxes were 18% (164?mm) higher than those in the forest stands. Evapotranspiration was lower in the natural gap and higher in the managed gap compared with the experimental clear-cut gaps. Water supply stress was greater for the forest stands than for the vegetation in the gaps. Drought stress was indicated to be lowest in the natural gap, which had patches of varying development phases and the highest water storage capacity of the soil and vegetation.     

Gap evapotranspiration and drainage fluxes in a managed and a virgin dinaric silver fir–beech forest in Slovenia: a modelling study

The monthly water balance in gaps in a managed Dinaric silver fir–beech forest and a virgin forest remnant located in SE Slovenia was modelled using a capacity water balance model for two growing seasons. Two gaps of different size (ca. 0.07 and 0.15 ha) were selected in each forest and plots for soil moisture monitoring were established in each gap (2–4) and in the surrounding forest (2–3). We report on the modelled actual evapotranspiration (AET) and potential evapotranspiration (PET) and drainage fluxes (DF) from the rooting zone at the plots. Precipitation over the 2001 growing season (May–October) was considerably drier than average and that for 2002 growing season was wetter than average. Modelled AET for the 2001 growing season varied between 88% and 96% of PET for the managed forest plots and between 90% and 100% for the virgin forest plots. The values for the gap plots varied between 87% and 100% at the managed forest site and between 92% and 96% for the gaps in the virgin forest site. Monthly AET values declined to 57–59% of PET at plots in the centre of the gaps in the managed forest site and to 63–74% in the gaps in the virgin forest site (July), indicating that the highest drought stress occurs in gap centres. For 2002 growing season, AET for all plots was 100% of PET. Modelled DF values in 2001 were 13–35% of rainfall for plots in the gap centres and 12–16% for plots in the forest at the managed forest site. On an average, gap DF values were 20% (154 mm) higher than the forest plot values. DF values in 2002 were similar for all plots at the managed forest site, 31–33% of rainfall. At the virgin forest site, 2001 growing season, DF values varied between 12% and 30% of rainfall at the forest plots and between 12% and 32% at the gap plots. In 2002, DF values for all plots in the virgin forest site varied between 24% and 38% of growing season rainfall. The varying development of vegetation and forest in the gaps of the virgin forest remnant resulted in more variable evapotranspiration and DF during the drought year 2001, with values not as clearly related to distance from the gap centre as in the managed forest site.     

Gap formation in Danish beech (Fagus sylvatica) forests of low management intensity: soil moisture and nitrate in soil solution

Soil moisture content (0–90 cm depth) and nitrate-nitrogen (NO₃-N) concentrations in soil solution (90 cm depth) were monitored after gap formation (diameter 15–18 m) in three Danish beech-dominated forests on nutrient-rich till soils. NO₃-N drainage losses were estimated by the water balance model WATBAL for one of the sites. Two forests were non-intervention forests (semi-natural and unmanaged), the third was subject to nature-based management. The study was intended to assess the range of effects of gap formation in forests of low management intensity. In the unmanaged and the nature-based managed forest, soil solution was collected for 5 years and soil moisture measured in the fourth year after gap formation. Average NO₃-N concentrations were significantly higher in the gaps (9.9 and 8.1 mg NO₃-N l⁻¹, respectively) than under closed canopy (0.2 mg l⁻¹). In the semi-natural forest, measurements were carried out up to 29 months after gap formation. Average NO₃-N concentrations in the gap were 19.3 mg NO₃-N l⁻¹. Gap formation alone did not account for this high level, as concentrations were high also under closed canopy (average 12.4 mg NO₃-N l⁻¹). However, the gap had significantly higher N concentrations when trees were in full leaf, and NO₃-N drainage losses were significantly increased in the gap. No losses occurred under closed canopy in growing seasons. Soil moisture was close to field capacity in all three gaps, but decreased under closed canopy in growing seasons. In the semi-natural forest, advanced regeneration and lateral closure of the gap affected soil moisture levels in the gap in the last year of the study.     

Size-mediated tree transpiration along soil drainage gradients in a boreal black spruce forest wildfire chronosequence

Boreal forests are crucial to climate change predictions because of their large land area and ability to sequester and store carbon, which is controlled by water availability. Heterogeneity of these forests is predicted to increase with climate change through more frequent wildfires, warmer, longer growing seasons and potential drainage of forested wetlands. This study aims at quantifying controls over tree transpiration with drainage condition, stand age and species in a central Canadian black spruce boreal forest. Heat dissipation sensors were installed in 2007 and data were collected through 2008 on 118 trees (69 Picea mariana (Mill.) Britton, Sterns & Poggenb. (black spruce), 25 Populus tremuloides Michx. (trembling aspen), 19 Pinus banksiana Lamb. (jack pine), 3 Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. Koch (tamarack) and 2 Salix spp. (willow)) at four stand ages (18, 43, 77 and 157 years old) each containing a well- and poorly-drained stand. Transpiration estimates from sap flux were expressed per unit xylem area, J(S), per unit ground area, E(C) and per unit leaf area, E(L), using sapwood (A(S)) and leaf (A(L)) area calculated from stand- and species-specific allometry. Soil drainage differences in transpiration were variable; only the 43- and 157-year-old poorly-drained stands had?～?50% higher total stand E(C) than well-drained locations. Total stand E(C) tended to decrease with stand age after an initial increase between the 18- and 43-year-old stands. Soil drainage differences in transpiration were controlled primarily by short-term physiological drivers such as vapor pressure deficit and soil moisture whereas stand age differences were controlled by successional species shifts and changes in tree size (i.e., A(S)). Future predictions of boreal climate change must include stand age, species and soil drainage heterogeneity to avoid biased estimates of forest water loss and latent energy exchanges.     

Modeling daily gas exchange of a Douglas-fir forest: comparison of three stomatal conductance models with and without a soil water stress function

Modeling stomatal conductance is a key element in predicting tree growth and water use at the stand scale. We compared three commonly used models of stomatal conductance, the Jarvis-Loustau, Ball-Berry and Leuning models, for their suitability for incorporating soil water stress into their formulation, and for their performance in modeling forest ecosystem fluxes. We optimized the parameters of each of the three models with sap flow and soil water content data. The optimized Ball-Berry model showed clear relationships with air temperature and soil water content, whereas the optimized Leuning and Jarvis-Loustau models only showed a relationship with soil water content. We conclude that use of relative humidity instead of vapor pressure deficit, as in the Ball-Berry model, is not suitable for modeling daily gas exchange in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) in the Speulderbos forest near the village of Garderen, The Netherlands. Based on the calculated responses to soil water content, we linked a model of forest growth, FORGRO, with a model of soil water, SWIF, to obtain a forest water-balance model that satisfactorily simulated carbon and water (transpiration) fluxes and soil water contents in the Douglas-fir forest for 1995.     

Modeling annual production and carbon fluxes of a large managed temperate forest using forest inventories, satellite data and field measurements

We evaluated annual productivity and carbon fluxes over the Fontainebleau forest, a large heterogeneous forest region of 17,000 ha, in terms of species composition, canopy structure, stand age, soil type and water and mineral resources. The model is a physiological process-based forest ecosystem model coupled with an allocation model and a soil model. The simulations were done stand by stand, i.e., 2992 forest management units of simulation. Some input parameters that are spatially variable and to which the model is sensitive were calculated for each stand from forest inventory attributes, a network of 8800 soil pits, satellite data and field measurements. These parameters are: (1) vegetation attributes: species, age, height, maximal leaf area index of the year, aboveground biomass and foliar nitrogen content; and (2) soil attributes: available soil water capacity, soil depth and soil carbon content. Main outputs of the simulations are wood production and carbon fluxes on a daily to yearly basis. Results showed that the forest is a carbon sink, with a net ecosystem exchange of 371 g C m(-2) year(-1). Net primary productivity is estimated at 630 g C m(-2) year(-1) over the entire forest. Reasonably good agreement was found between simulated trunk relative growth rate (2.74%) and regional production estimated from the National Forest Inventory (IFN) (2.52%), as well as between simulated and measured annual wood production at the forest scale (about 71,000 and 68,000 m(3) year(-1), respectively). Results are discussed species by species.     

Spatial pattern and regeneration dynamics in a temperate Abies–Tsuga forest in southwestern Japan

This article reports the regeneration dynamics of a temperate Abies–Tsuga forest in Kirishima Yaku National Park, southwestern Japan, and examines the influence of species coexistence mediated by gap disturbances on biomass production. All trees taller than 2 m in a 1-ha plot were monitored over four growing seasons. Three growth-form groups occupied different vertical layers. Evergreen conifers and deciduous broad-leaved trees tended to be spatially segregated from evergreen broad-leaved trees, which formed thickets in the understorey. The regeneration of understorey evergreen broad-leaved trees was affected by canopy gaps. The recruitment of conifers and deciduous broad-leaved species was not observed during the four growing seasons. This suggests that regeneration is sporadic and the present environmental conditions are not favorable for these canopy species. The mortality and unsuccessful recruitment of conifers and deciduous trees appeared to cause fluctuations in the productivity of the stand. However, an abundance of canopy gaps accelerates the regrowth of shorter species, and the fluctuation of productivity resulting from the population dynamics of canopy species would be partly mitigated by the regeneration of evergreen understorey species. The horizontal and vertical heterogeneity of the temperate mixed forest was a result of the patch structures of the three growth-form groups. The different regeneration patterns among the three groups, which were driven by interactions of species-specific regeneration niches and disturbance regimes, might be an important factor in maintaining the aboveground productivity in a transitional mixed forest between warm-temperate and cool-temperate zones.     

Use of water stress integral to evaluate relationships between soil moisture,plant water stress and stand productivity in young Douglas-fir trees

Water stress integral (WSI) is a method of assessing cumulative plant water stress over a chosen period of time. While the technique has been used in other tree species, it has not been applied for reforestation projects. In this study we used the WSI approach for newly planted Douglas-fir in the Pacific Northwest (USA), where the Mediterranean climate, plant community development, and competition for water all play key roles in the success of establishment efforts. In this study, previously reported seedling growth, xylem water potential, and soil moisture data were utilized to provide direct correlations between Douglas-fir productivity, soil water availability and WSI. For each growing season, a strong relationship between WSI and volume growth as well as a strong linear relationship between WSI and soil moisture measured during mid-August was found. On average, for each reduction of 0.01 cm³ cm^?3 in soil moisture measured during mid-August, Douglas-fir seedling volume growth decreased by 5.6 and 7.7% in the first and second growing seasons, respectively. Preserving soil moisture until early-August through the judicial application of vegetation management regimes was critical for maximizing stand productivity. Based on these results, a single evaluation of soil volumetric water content during early-August can be used as a predictor of stand productivity during the initial two seasons of forest establishment.     

Transpiration and canopy conductance of Caragana korshinskii trees in response to soil moisture in sand land of China

Caragana korshinskii is widely used in vegetation reestablishment programs to stabilize the shifting of sand on the Loess Plateau. This sand shifting of sand exerts pressure on the limited soil water and vice versa. However, detailed transpiration and sap flow studies that focus on water use in these stands remain limited. The hourly sap flows, along with successive soil water balance and meteorological measurements, on three trees were measured using the thermal heat balance method during the growing season period. Results showed that the midday sap flow and stand transpiration were significantly lower during the stress period (from May to July) compared with those at the beginning of August concurrently with high soil water content. The heat balance measurements underestimated the transpiration obtained from the soil water balance method. When the tree conductance was fitted with climatic variables and soil water content, the canopy conductance increased exponentially with above-canopy radiation, whereas it decreased logarithmically with decreasing vapor pressure deficit. In the absence of water stress, the tree conductance was unchanged when the relative extractable water remained above 0.4, whereas the conductance decreased linearly after the wilting point. The model was generally well fitted to the measured transpiration data in terms of the response during the dry and rainy seasons, thus demonstrating the feasibility of developing a quantity schedule for C. korshinskii transpiration on the Loess Plateau in the presence of a soil water stress.     

中亚热带天然林改造成人工林后土壤呼吸的变化特征

【目的】研究中亚热带常绿阔叶林(天然林)改造成人工林后土壤碳排放量的变化及主要影响因子,为评估森林类型转换对土壤碳排放的影响提供科学依据。【方法】在福建农林大学西芹教学林场的常绿阔叶林及由其改造而来的38年生闽楠人工林与35年生杉木人工林中分别设置4块20 m×20 m样地,利用Li-8100土壤碳通量观测系统于2014年9月—2016年9月进行定点观测,并同期观测土壤温度、含水量、有机碳含量(SOC)、微生物生物量碳含量(MBC)、可溶性有机碳含量(DOC)、0～20 cm土层细根生物量和年凋落物量及凋落物碳氮比(C/N)。【结果】常绿阔叶林改造成闽楠(38年后)和杉木人工林(35年后),年均土壤碳排放通量由16. 22显著降为12. 71和4. 83 tC·hm^-2a^-1,分别减少21. 60%和70. 20%;各林分类型的土壤呼吸温度敏感性Q¹⁰值表现为常绿阔叶林(1. 97)<闽楠人工林(2. 03)<杉木人工林(2. 91),转换为杉木人工林后,Q¹⁰值显著升高(P<0. 05);土壤温度能分别解释常绿阔叶林、闽楠人工林与杉木人工林土壤呼吸速率变化的89. 70%、88. 50%和87. 90%,土壤呼吸速率和土壤含水量相关不显著(P>0. 05);土壤呼吸速率和SOC、MBC、DOC、年凋落物量及0～20 cm土层细根生物量均极显著正相关(P<0. 01);土壤呼吸温度敏感性指数Q¹⁰值和凋落物C/N极显著正相关(P<0. 01),而与年均土壤呼吸速率及MBC极显著负相关(P<0. 01);进一步分析发现土壤MBC和SOC含量是影响土壤呼吸速率的2个最重要因子,而凋落物C/N在影响土壤呼吸温度敏感性中的贡献最大。【结论】中亚热带地区常绿阔叶林改造成闽楠(38年)或杉木(35年)人工林后,土壤碳排放通量显著降低。林分类型转换后树种组成和林分结构发生改变,凋落物数量、质量及细根生物量显著降低,土壤SOC和MBC含量显著下降可共同导致土壤呼吸通量的下降。土壤温度是3种林分类型土壤呼吸季节变化的主导因素,而土壤总有机碳库和土壤微生物量碳库的差异是不同林分之间土壤呼吸差异的主导因素,凋落物C/N对土壤呼吸的Q¹⁰影响最大。为提高模型预测森林类型转换影响土壤碳排放的精度,应综合考虑土壤有机碳库、易变性有机碳库及底物质量的变化。     

A theory to link relationships of stand volume,density, mean diameter and height in forestry data

In this study,a geometric model of a growing forest stand has been explored.The basic relationships considered link stand volume and stand density,diameter at breast height(DBH),mean DBH and mean height.The model provides simple formulas connecting the exponents of all the relationships.Application of the formulas to real forestry data provided a high level of predictions of an exponent from two others measured through regressions from empirical data.The Pinus sylvestris L.data were of a static nature,a collection of individual stands,while the Pseudotsuga menziesii(Mirb.) Franco data were dynamic,representing forest stand development over time.The ability of the model to predict exponents in the empirical data implies,on the one hand,a substantial level of similarity between the model and the forestry data.And,on the other hand,the model gives an example in which parameters of one relationship may be linked to parameters of another.Supposedly this kind of 'relationship between relationships' may be observed in forest stands undergoing active growth and competition-induced self-thinning.     

基于耗水量的晋西刺槐人工林密度调控研究

根据样地调查、解析木和气象资料,拟合了晋西刺槐(Robinia pseudoacacia Linn.)人工林基于耗水量的幂函数密度调控模型。其中,以单株材积连年生长量和单株胸径连年生长量表示的模型拟合效果较好。研究表明,干旱、半干旱区有必要在传统密度控制图基础上,以水分资源环境容量为基点,以不同林龄水分消耗与降水资源平衡原则,制定基于降水量的不同林龄林分密度控制图。     

Flux partitioning in an old-growth forest: seasonal and interannual dynamics

Turbulent fluxes of carbon, water and energy were measured at the Wind River Canopy Crane, Washington, USA from 1999 to 2004 with eddy-covariance instrumentation above (67 m) and below (2.5 m) the forest canopy. Here we present the decomposition of net ecosystem exchange of carbon (NEE) into gross primary productivity (GPP), ecosystem respiration (R(eco)) and tree canopy net CO(2) exchange (DeltaC) for an old-growth Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco)-western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.) forest. Significant amounts of carbon were recycled within the canopy because carbon flux measured at the below-canopy level was always upward. Maximum fluxes reached 4-6 micromol m(-2) s(-1) of CO(2) into the canopy air space during the summer months, often equaling the net downward fluxes measured at the above-canopy level. Ecosystem respiration rates deviated from the expected exponential relationship with temperature during the summer months. An empirical ecosystem stress term was derived from soil water content and understory flux data and was added to the R(eco) model to account for attenuated respiration during the summer drought. This attenuation term was not needed in 1999, a wet La Ni?a year. Years in which climate approximated the historical mean, were within the normal range in both NEE and R(eco), but enhanced or suppressed R(eco) had a significant influence on the carbon balance of the entire stand. In years with low respiration the forest acts as a strong carbon sink (-217 g C m(-2) year(-1)), whereas years in which respiration is high can turn the ecosystem into a weak to moderate carbon source (+100 g C m(-2) year(-1)).     

Modelling long-term impacts of environmental change on mid- and high-latitude European forests and options for adaptive forest management

The process based model SMART–SUMO–WATBAL was applied to 166 intensive monitoring forest plots of mid- and high-latitude Europe to evaluate the effects of expected future changes in carbon dioxide concentration, temperature, precipitation and nitrogen deposition on forest growth (net annual increment). These results were used in the large-scale forest scenario model EFISCEN (European Forest Information SCENario model) to upscale impacts of environmental change and to combine these results with adapted forest management. Because of the few plots available, Mediterranean countries were excluded from analyses. Results are presented for 109 million ha in 23 European countries.     

Comparable water use of two contrasting riparian forests in the lower Heihe River basin,Northwest China

Understanding forest ecosystem evapotranspiration(ET) is crucial for water-limited environments,particularly those that lack adequate quantified data such as the lower Heihe River basin of northwest China which is primarily dominated by Tamarix ramosissima Ledeb.and Populus euphratica Oliv.forests.Accordingly,we selected the growing season for 2 years (2012 and 2014) of two such forests under similar meteorological conditions to compare ET using the eddy covariance(EC) technique.During the growing seasons,daily ET of T.ramosissima ranged from 0.3 to 8.0 mm day~(-1) with a mean of 3.6 mm day~(-1),and daily ET of P.euphratica ranged from 0.9 to 7.9 mm day~(-1) with a mean of 4.6 mm day~(-1) for a total of 548 and 707 mm,respectively.The significantly higher ET of the P.euphratica stand was directly linked to high soil evaporation rates under sufficient water availability from irrigation.When the soil evaporation was disregarded,water use was comparable to two contrasting riparian forests,a P.euphratica forest with a total transpiration of 465 mm and a T.ramosissima forest with 473 mm.Regression analysis demonstrated that climate factors accounted for at least 80% of ET variation in both forest types.In conclusion,water use of the riparian forests was low and comparable in this arid region,that suggest the long-term plant adaptation to the local climate and conditions of water availability.     

Carbon pools and fluxes in small temperate forest landscapes: Variability and implications for sampling design

Assessing forest carbon storage and cycling over large areas is a growing challenge that is complicated by the inherent heterogeneity of forest systems. Field measurements must be conducted and analyzed appropriately to generate precise estimates at scales large enough for mapping or comparison with remote sensing data. In this study we examined spatial variability in three small temperate forest landscapes. Our objectives were (1) to quantify the magnitude and scale of variability in stand structure, carbon pools and carbon fluxes and (2) to assess how this variability influences both optimal sampling strategy and required sampling intensity. Stand structure was consistently less variable than carbon pools or fluxes, suggesting that measuring carbon dynamics may require more intense sampling than traditional forestry inventories. Likewise, the magnitude of variability differed substantially among response variables, implying that sampling efficiency can be enhanced by adopting a flexible sampling strategy that is optimized for each carbon pool. Our results indicate that plots dispersed across the study area are generally more effective than clustered plots for characterizing carbon dynamics.     

Effects of thinning on soil and tree water relations, transpiration and growth in an oak forest (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.)

To quantify the effects of crown thinning on the water balance and growth of the stand and to analyze the ecophysiological modifications induced by canopy opening on individual tree water relations, we conducted a thinning experiment in a 43-year-old Quercus petraea stand by removing trees from the upper canopy level. Soil water content, rainfall interception, sap flow, leaf water potential and stomatal conductance were monitored for two seasons following thinning. Seasonal time courses of leaf area index (LAI) and girth increment were also measured. Predawn leaf water potential was significantly higher in trees in the thinned stand than in the closed stand, as a consequence of higher relative extractable water in the soil. The improvement in water availability in the thinned stand resulted from decreases in both interception and transpiration. From Year 1 to Year 2, an increase in transpiration was observed in the thinned stand without any modification in LAI, whereas changes in transpiration in the closed stand were accompanied by variations in LAI. The different behaviors of the closed and open canopies were interpreted in terms of coupling to the atmosphere. Thinning increased inter-tree variability in sap flow density, which was closely related to a leaf area competition index. Stomatal conductance varied little inside the crown and differences in stomatal conductance between the treatments appeared only during a water shortage and affected mainly the closed stand. Thinning enhanced tree growth as a result of a longer growing period due to the absence of summer drought and higher rates of growth. Suppressed and dominant trees benefited more from thinning than trees in the codominant classes.     

小陇山林区日本落叶松人工林培育目标探讨

以小陇山林区日本落叶松人工林156块样地调查数据,应用理查德曲线进行林分平均树高和胸径生长模型的拟和,通过回归假设F检验,拟和的生长模型,在F0.05水平与实际值差异不显著;利用拟和的导向曲线方程,以树高为基础,将小陇山林区日本落叶松林分立地划分为5个地位级。同时以小陇山沙坝实验基地引种试验林为例,分析了林分生长、单木生长过程和趋势。     

Exploring adaptation to climate change in the forests of central Nova Scotia, Canada

The threat of climate change is now recognized as an imminent issue at the forefront of the forest sector. Incorporating adaptation to climate change into forest management will be vital in the continual and sustainable provision of forest ecosystem services. The objective of this study is to investigate climate change adaptation in forest management using the landscape disturbance model LANDIS-II. The study area was comprised of 14,000 ha of forested watersheds in central Nova Scotia, Canada, managed by Halifax Water, the municipal water utility. Simulated climate change adaptation was directed towards three components of timber harvesting: the canopy-opening size of harvests, the age of harvested trees within a stand, and the species composition of harvested trees within a stand. These three adaptation treatments were simulated singly and in combination with each other in the modeling experiment. The timber supply was found to benefit from climate change in the absence of any adaptation treatment, though there was a loss of target tree species and old growth forest. In the age treatment, all trees in a harvested stand at or below the age of sexual maturity were exempt from harvesting. This was done to promote more-rapid succession to climax forest communities typical of the study area. It was the most effective in maintaining the timber supply, but least effective in promoting resistance to climate change at the prescribed harvest intensity. In the composition treatment, individual tree species were selected for harvest based on their response to climate change in previous research and on management values at Halifax Water to progressively facilitate forest transition under the altered climate. This proved the most effective treatment for maximizing forest age and old-growth area and for promoting stands composed of climatically suited target species. The size treatment was aimed towards building stand complexity and resilience to climate change, and was the most influential treatment on the response of timber supply, forest age, and forest composition to timber harvest when it was combined with other treatments. The combination of all three adaptation treatments yielded an adequate representation of target species and old forest without overly diminishing the timber supply, and was therefore the most effective in minimizing the trade-offs between management values and objectives. These findings support a diverse and multi-faceted approach to climate change adaptation.