Optimum fodder-mulch allocation of tree foliage under alley farming in southwest Nigeria

In alley farming, crop response to mulching is the most important determinant of whether or not the use of prunings for feeding animals is economic. At low crop yields, and low crop response to mulching, feeding part of the tree foliage to small ruminants is economically gainful but at high crop yield levels and higher crop response to mulching, the use of pruning for feeding animals is uneconomic at current market prices.     

Land tenure and farm management efficiency: The case of smallholder rubber production in customary land areas of Sumatra

This study assesses the impact of land tenure institutions on the efficiency of farm management based on a case study of rubber production in customary land areas of Sumatra, Indonesia. Using the modes of land acquisition as measures of land tenure institutions, we estimated tree planting, revenue, income, and short-run profit functions, and internal rates of return to tree planting on smallholder rubber fields. We find generally insignificant differences in the incidence of tree planting and management efficiency (defined as residual profits) of rubber production between newly emerging private ownership and customary ownership. This is consistent with our hypothesis that tree planting confers stronger individual rights, if land rights are initially weak (as in the case of family land under customary land tenure systems). On the other hand, short-term profits are higher on land that is rented through share tenancy. This result indicates that rubber trees are over-exploited under renting arrangements due partly to the short-run nature of the land tenancy contracts and partly to the difficulty landowners face in supervising tapping activities of tenants in spatially dispersed rubber fields. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The potential of alley farming in humid West Africa — a re-evaluation

Previously published hypothesis concerning the potential impact of alley farming on maize yields are re-examined relative to the humid regions of West Africa. When more realistic assumptions regarding the availability of organic nitrogen are used, it is concluded that alley farming may have potential in a wider range of maize yield environments in West Africa than previously proposed. A pragmatic approach to alley farming research is proposed, and the importance of on-farm research in the development of ‘farmer friendly’ alley farming is stressed. (Former Agronomist, International Livestock Centre for Africa, P.M.B. 5320, Ibadan, Nigeria)     

Changes of land tenure and the introduction of tree cash crops by shifting cultivators: The case of the Paluan Muruts in Sabah, Malaysia

Shifting cultivation is one of the main factors that has caused forest degradation in many tropical countries. In Sabah, Malaysia, the government has granted land titles to local farmers outside the Forest reserve, and introduced tree cash crops to reduce farmers’ dependence on shifting cultivation. Granting land titles, however, was not always an incentive for farmers to plant tree cash crops. Farmers often planted tree cash crops on land without secure legal rights. The Land Ordinance and illegal logging had introduced exclusive and (semi-)permanent rights to land into this region, and the Forest reserve also was divided among villagers. The Land Ordinance stipulates that planting trees confers permanent heritable and transferable rights of use and occupancy but not within Forest reserves. Local farmers who were anxious about their land rights believed that they could obtain those rights even within the Forest reserve, and applied for land titles. Farmers planted tree cash crops not only for future income but also to secure their land rights. At present, the policy of Forest reserve has nearly collapsed in this region and it is impossible to neglect or remove local farmers if the government utilizes Forest reserves for any purpose. Lands in the interior regions will be reclassified in the near future out of necessity.     

The role of land tenure in agroforestry: lessons from Benin

In this article the relationship between land tenure and agroforestry is analysed drawing on a case study from Benin. It is argued that tenants, the landless and the majority of women are disadvantaged compared with landowners in terms of their ability to adopt agroforestry systems. This is due to a lack of land resources, tenure insecurity and restrictions in planting perennial crops. State interventions and conflicts between farmers and pastoralists further limit land tenure security of the rural population and thus reduce the willingness of peasants to invest on a long-term basis and to protect natural resources. The article concludes with some implications for policy and project interventions in the field of land tenure systems.

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Résumé Dans cet article, les relations entre droit foncier et agroforesterie sont analysées dans le cas du Bénin. Le fait que les locataires, les paysans sans terre et la plupart des femmes sont désavantagés par rapport aux propriétaires parce qu'ils ne sont pas en mesure d'adopter des systèmes agroforestiers est mis en evidence. Cela est dû au manque de ressources foncières, à l'incertitude de l'utilisation de la terre et aux restrictions sur la plantation des cultures pérennes. Des interventions étatiques et des conflits fonciers entre agriculteurs sédentaires et éleveurs restreignent la sécurité foncière de la population rurale et réduisent la disposition des paysans à investir à long terme et à protéger les ressources naturelles. A la fin de l'article les conclusions pour des interventions politiques et pour la planification des projets dans le domaine du droit foncier sont identifiées.

     

Methods of on-farm,diagnostic research on adoption potential of alley cropping

An approach to on-farm diagnostic research on alley cropping is described. The objective of economic assessment was to evaluate the adoption potential of the technology. Three activities were included. In the first research activity, cost-route surveys and field measurements were carried out for a small sample of farmers with recently established alleys. Although research-resource intensive, the cost-route studies and field measurements were necessary to develop a framework for analyzing alley cropping on-farm because rapid methods of assessing intrinsically dynamic technologies are not yet available. Administration of a focused, formal single visit survey to a large sample of farmers who have participated in alley farming trials at several locations was the second activity. Intensive data collection with a small sample continued in order to quantify factors identified as key in the first activity. Although still developmental, it is hoped that the combination of methods will contribute to development of more rapid and readily accessible methods of evaluating agroforestry technologies on-farm. IITA Journal Article No. IITA/90.JA/23.     

湖南省退耕还林造林模式探讨

在大量调查湖南省退耕还林实际情况的基础上,根据不同坡度、地形、习惯、经济、市场、加工企业情况等,研究了现有湖南省退耕还林造林模式布局与配置,并对湖南省退耕还林典型造林模式进行了总结。据此提出,造林模式设计时,应优先考虑由本地地带性植被构成的稳定性自然顶级群落,再考虑人为优化设计和精密结构布局,充分利用不同时空环境资源（光线、水份、营养互补）,从而最大限度地增加单位空间的植物生产量。     

中国西部退耕还林基本策略研究

２１世纪,生态危机成为人类面临的最大威胁,森林作为陆地生态系统的主体,自然成为世人瞩目的集点。由于中国西部水土流失、土地沙化、水资源紧张、生物多样性锐减等问题越来越突出,给人民的生活与国民经济发展造成巨大损失。退耕还林成为中华民族生态与发展的根本大计,这不仅关系到当代人的生存与发展,而且关系到子孙后代的生存与发展,文章在上述背景下提出了符合中国实际的对策,供决策部门参考。     

西部山青水绿 重在退耕还林还草

中国西部由于自然和人为因素的影响,森林破坏严重,生态环境日趋恶化,经济基础薄弱,自然生态条件较差,发展水平仍然较低,人均国内生产总值无一达到全国平均水平,严重地制约国民经济的发展和社会的安定团结,作者分析了森林遭到破坏之后所造成的恶果对整个国民经济持续、快速和健康发展的影响,研究了退耕还林在整治国土中的巨大作用。     

四川省退耕还林模式初探

根据自然地理分异规律、社会经济技术原理、生态学原理,分析了四川省的水土流失概况,提出了川中丘陵、盆周山地区、川西南干热干旱河谷区、川西北高山高原区的退耕还林模式。     

Determinants of farmers' adoption and adaptation of alley farming technology in Nigeria

Understanding the factors affecting framers' adoption of improvedtechnologies is critical to success of implementing agroforestry developmentprograms. This paper evaluated the determinants of farmers' decisions to adoptand adapt alley farming technology and its variants in the farming systems ofNigeria, using econometric Logit models. Eleven variables were significant inexplaining farmers' adoption decisions. The model results show that farmercharacteristics that influenced adoption included the gender of the farmer,contact with extension agents, years of experience with agroforestry and tenancystatus in the village. Economic factors, proxied by village-levelcharacteristics that condition resource use incentives, were also significant.These variables include the extent of village land pressure, extent of erosionintensity, village fuel wood pressure, importance of livestock as an economicactivity in the village and the distance of the village locations from urbancenters. The paper showed that farmers are already making significantmodifications to the conventional alley farming technology introduced byscientists. The two most important modifications were the introduction of fallowperiods into the conventional system and changes in the pruning regime of thesystem. Model results showed that human capital variables were significant inexplaining farmers' decisions to adapt and modify the technology. Farmereducation and family size significantly influence the choice of pruning regime.Farmers' age, education, intensity of erosion in the farmers' village, andfarmers' land availability significantly influence whether or not fallowperiod is introduced into the conventional system. To promote greater adoptionof agroforestry alternatives to slash-and-burn agriculture, particular attentionshould be placed on the use of appropriate socioeconomic characterization, tobetter target technologies to areas with higher adoption potential. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The role of agroforestry in the farming systems in Rwanda with special reference to the Bugesera-Gisaka-Migongo (BGM) region

The Rwandan farmers, faced with a perpetual land shortage, have evolved certain intensive systems of organic agriculture. These systems, particularly the homestead (compound) farming, involve the combination of food, fodder and tree crops. to a certain extent these systems can satisfy the multiple needs of the subsistence farmers living under several risks and constraints. However, they cannot cope with the expanding food demand of the rapidly increasing population. Some multipurpose, low-input technologies and agroforestry approaches have been designed to improve the productivity of these traditional systems; these include inter/mixed cropping systems and rotations, alley cropping with leguminous trees and shrubs, use of planted fallow, planting tree legumes on anti-erosive lines, mixed farming,community forestry and woodlots, and tree planting on farm/field boundaries. The essential aspects of these technologies are briefly discussed.ISAR-IITA FSR PROJECT, B.P. 629, Kigali RwandaISAR-Swiss Intercooperation, c/o Forestry Department, B.P. 617, Butare, Rwanda     

四川退耕还林可持续经营模式探讨

退耕地是具有一定高度和坡度的特殊土地体系，受地形因素和自然规律的综合作用，孕育了经营模式上的多样性和复杂性。在分析四川水土流失现状和退耕还林工程总体布局的基础上，设计退耕还林经营模式，从宏观上提出特殊区域地方特色的退耕还林模式，以指导退耕还林工程。     

湖南退耕还林主要造林模式研究

湖南省自2000年开展退耕还林试点,2002年在全省全面实施,6年来各地在退耕还林实践中创造出了一批成功的造林模式,取得了良好的生态、经济和社会效益。通过总结湖南省主要退耕还林造林模式的技术措施,分析其生态和经济效益,走生态、经济、社会共同发展之路,确保退耕还林工程“退得下,还得上,能致富,不反弹。”     

Agroforestry for soil and water conservation in the western Himalayan Valley Region of India 2. Crop and tree production

A ten-year-study (1983 to 1992) conducted on nine 15 × 90 m runoff plots at 4% slope compared production efficiency of Leucaena leucocephala and Eucalyptus hybrid based agroforestry as well as monocropping landuse systems in the warm, subhumid climate of the western Himalayan region of India. Treatments for the first sequence were: monocropping systems of leucaena, eucalyptus, Chrysopogon fulvus grass and maize – wheat rotation, and alley cropping systems of grass and crops at 4.5 and 10.5 m alley widths with paired contour tree rows of leucaena and eucalyptus. In the second sequence, alley width increased to 22.5 m in 1989, grass was replaced by turmeric Curcuma longa and paired contour rows of leucaena hedges were introduced in monocropping systems of grain crops and turmeric. Integration of leucaena and eucalyptus trees with crops caused severe reduction of crop yields ranging from 21 to 92% for wheat grain, 59 to 69% for maize grain, 60 to 67% for dry grass and about 50% for turmeric rhizome depending upon the age of trees and alley width. The grain yield of crops stabilized at about 50% reduction with 22.5 m alley width. Total crop biomass (grain + straw) also revealed a similar trend; however, its magnitude of reduction was less severe than for grain. Production of biomass was much lower near the tree rows than in mid alleys. Managing leucaena as contour hedgerows eliminated crop yield reduction in alleys. Performance of grass and turmeric in alleys was not found to be satisfactory. Biomass produced from trees adequately compensated the crop yield reduction. Land equivalent ratios of agroforestry landuses were comparable or even better than monocropping systems indicating suitability of these systems for the western Himalayan valley region. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

退耕还林对土壤抗冲能力的强化效应

抗冲性是土壤生态系统在抵抗面状侵蚀和线状侵蚀过程中所表现出的一种重要性能,主要受植物群落和土壤特征的影响。通过采用索波列夫抗冲法试验,结果表明:①退耕还林3年后,林地10、30、50 cm三个土层的平均产流历时比坡耕地延长1.2、0.87、0.52 s,地表迳流量比坡耕地减少5.216、4.286、2.613 L/m2,土壤抗冲性比坡耕地增强0.277、0.255、0.206 kg/(m2.min);②土层越深,退耕还林对土壤产流历时的延长效应就越短,对土壤产流量的减弱效应就越小,对土壤抗冲性的强化效应就越低;③退耕还林对坡面产流历时的延长效应、对坡面产流量的减弱效应及对土壤抗冲性的强化效应随土壤母质的不同而差别很大。     

The adoption of alley farming and Mucuna: lessons for research, development and extension

This paper evaluates the utility of the `learning selection' model of the early adoption process, based on a constructivist conceptual framework, to explain farmers' adoption and rejection of two soil-improving technologies – alley farming and the use of Mucuna cover crops. The analysis showed that Mucuna was more successful than alley farming because: (1) early research and extension took farmers' perceptions more into account when changing from recommending Mucuna for soil improvement to weed suppression; (2) it was then introduced into areas where there was a real need for the technology; (3) it gave short-term benefits; and (4) it was more amenable to farmer modification and adaptation. The analysis also provided support for the conclusion reached elsewhere that separate trials are needed to gather biophysical data, where researchers need to keep a high degree of control, as opposed to adoptability trials where farmers must be able to manage the technology as they wish. The paper also used the learning selection model to derive research and extension guidelines. The close match between these guidelines and the literature suggests that a constructivist perspective in general, and the learning selection model in particular, can provide a useful `road map' to plan and carry out research and extension.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Crop-tree interactions in alley cropping systems on alluvial soils of the Upper Amazon Basin

A crop/hedgerow interface design was used to test three leguminous species,Inga edulis, Leucaena leucocephala andErythrina sp., for their potential use for alley cropping on alluvial soils in the upper Amazon Basin. Prunings were applied as mulch at three rates 0, 3.3 and 6.7 Mg dry matter/ha/crop. Competition, crop yields, nutrient budgets, and weed control were monitored for three consecutive crops of upland rice. Crop yield reductions were evident up to 1.5 m from each of the hedgerow species, but were more pronounced withLeucaena hedgerows. Additional mulch was able to compensate for these reduced yields close to the hedges inLeucaena leucocephala andErythrina but not inInga edulis systems. In general rice yields were higher withLeucaena leucocephala andErythrina mulch as compared toInga mulch, perhaps because of higher levels of available N provided by the rapidly decomposing leaves ofLeucaena leucocephala andErythrina sp. as compared toInga. Weed control was greater, however, with the slowly decomposingInga mulch. For all three hedgerow/crop systems there was a net export of P from the system which was exhibited by declining soil P levels and decreasing crop yields.

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Resumen Un diseño de interfase cultivo/hilera de árboles se uso para ensayar tres especies leguminosas:Inga edulis, Leucaena leucocephala, y Erythrina sp. con el propósito de conocer su potencial para ser usadas en cultivos en callejones en suelos aluviales de la parte alta de la cuenca amazónica. Se aplicaron podas en 3 cantidades, 0. 3.3, y 6.7 Mg ha^–1 por cultivo. El efecto de competencia, rendimiento del cultivo, balance de nutrientes y control de malezas fueron medidos durante tres cultivos consecutivos de arroz de altura. Reductiones en el rendimiento del cultivo fueron evidenctes hasta 1.5 m de distancia de las hileras de árboles, las reducciones fueron mayores con hileras deLeucaena eInga. Incrementos de las cantidades de podas aplicada fueron capaces de incrementar los rendimientos cerca de las hileras deLeuceana leucocephala yErythrina pero no deInga. En general los rendimientos de arroz fueron más altos con podas deLeucaena yErythrina en comparación con podas deInga, debido quizás a los niveles más altos de nitrógeno disponible proveído por las podas deLeucaena yErythrina, que son de más rápida descomposición. Para las 3 especies estudiadas en interfase, hubo una exportación neta de nutrientes con el grano y rastrojo de arroz que se observó en el declinar de los niveles de P en el suelo y en el declinar de los rendimientos.

     

南岳区退耕还林植物景观林造林模式

从2001年到2005年,抓住国家退耕还林的机会,在南岳衡山核心景区营造植物景观观赏林136.8 hm2,植物景观林种类16种,达到了南岳核心景区退耕还林、还绿、还美目标。提高了南岳的旅游景观质量,促进了南岳生态建设的发展。     

Impact of tree coppicing on tree-crop competition in parkland and alley farming systems in semiarid Burkina Faso

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of tree coppicing on tree-crop competition in farmed parkland and in alley farming, both in semiarid Burkina Faso.Azadirachta indica A. Juss (neem) was studied in the parklands, while neem,Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. (albizia) andLeucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit (leucaena) were investigated in the alley farming system. The crop was sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) in both cases.Under non-coppiced neem trees in the parkland, the sorghum yield at 0–3 m distance from the tree (under the tree canopy) was 82% of open field yields at 6–9 m distance, but the difference was not significant (p=0.07). Close to trees (0–3 m distance) which had been coppiced before planting, the sorghum yield was 148% of open field yields. In alley farming, early coppicing was superior; sorghum yields were highest close to trees coppiced early and lowest close to trees coppiced late.

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Résumé La présente étude se propose d'évaluer les effets de la taille sur la concurrence entre arbres et cultures dans les parcs arborés et dans les cultures en couloir, en climat semiaride (Burkina Faso). Les espèces étudiées ont été:Azadirachta indica A. Juss (neem) dans les parcs et neem,Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. (albizia) ainsi queLeucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit (leucaena) dans les cultures en couloir. Dans les deux cas la plante cultivée concerné a été le sorgho blanc (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench).Sous les neems non taillés des parcs, le rendement du sorgho cultivé de 0 à 3 m de l'arbre (sous le bouppier de l'arbre) a atteint 82% du rendement obtenu en plein champ, soit à une distance de 6 à 9 m de l'arbre (différence non significative,p=0.07). Une taille effectuée en début de campagne a entraîné un accroissement du rendement de 148% pour les cultures situées de 0 à 3 m de l'arbre, par rapport aux rendements en plein champ.Dans les cultures en couloir, on a constaté qu'une taille precoce est préférable, c'est à dire que les rendements de sorgho ont été supérieurs dans les lignes proches des arbres taillés tôt que dans celles proches des arbres taillés tard.