Normal haematology and blood biochemistry of wild Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana

Wild Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) of various size classes were captured in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Blood was collected from the post occipital sinus and used for the determination of a wide range of haematological and biochemical parameters. These values were compared between the sexes and between 3 size classes. The values were also compared with the limited data available from farmed Nile crocodiles, as well as from other wild Nile crocodiles. The Okavango crocodiles were comparatively anaemic, and had comparatively low total protein and blood glucose levels. There was a high prevalence of Hepatozoon pettiti infection, however, there was no significant difference in haematological values between the infected and uninfected crocodiles. The values reported here will be useful in diagnostic investigations in both zoo and farmed Nile crocodiles.     

Disease-husbandry associations in farmed crocodiles in Queensland and the Northern Territory

SUMMARY To investigate husbandry-disease associations in farmed crocodiles 7 farms in Queensland and the Northern Territory were visited and details of past and present farm design and husbandry practices were recorded. In addition pathological examination of 300 (mostly young) crocodiles was carried out (85 necropsied, one biopsied and 214 examined retrospectively). Mortality rate and occurrence of disease, especially opportunistic infections with bacteria and fungi, were highest during winter months and in farms located at greater latitudes. A difference in the presence and prevalence of disease between the initial establishment phase of Northern Territory crocodile farms (1984–87) and currently (1988–91) was apparent; parasitic infections are now relatively infrequent and bacterial septicaemias and mycoses less common as a result of some provision of artificial heating for juveniles. Gross and microscopic changes observed in visceral and periarticular gout, bacterial hepatitis/septicaemia, deep and superficial mycosis, pentastomiasis and other parasitic infections are described.     

Pathology of skin diseases in crocodiles

Objective To establish which skin diseases occur in crocodiles, particularly those on farms, to indicate the relative frequency of each particular disease and to provide information on pathogenesis, especially in regard to lesions with two or more pathogens present.
Design A gross and microscopic retrospective (period of 1989 to 1995) and current (1996 to 1997) examination of skin lesions in crocodiles in Queensland and the Northern Territory.
Result Skin lesions were obtained from crocodiles on nine farms, from a group of experimental animals and from one adult found dead in the wild. A total of 203 lesions from 180, mostly young, crocodiles was examined; 119 lesions were from retrospectively examined cases and 84 were recent. The relative frequencies of four presumed primary pathogens in lesions were Dermatophilus s p 28.1 %, fungi 14.8%, poxvirus 3.4% and probable Mycobacterium s p 2.5%. In addition, other bacteria of unknown significance were present in many lesions, and there was one case of presumed Paratrichosoma crocodilus infection. In 32.5% of lesions, multiple pathogens were identified.
Conclusion Dermatophilosis is the most common and probably the most important skin disease of crocodiles in Australia, but it is frequently complicated by concurrent infection with fungi or other microorganisms.     

Haematological values of young male rusa deer (Cervus timorensis)

OBJECTIVE: To measure haematological values of clinical significance for rusa deer and provide reference data for farmed animals. DESIGN: Blood samples were collected regularly from eight male rusa deer from 14 days to 27 months old. PROCEDURE: Blood samples, collected by venipuncture, were analysed within 6 hours of collection for red cell count, haemoglobin, packed cell volume, plasma glucose, white cell count and differentials. RESULTS: Haemoglobin concentrations appeared to increase with age and ranged from 6.0 to 20.9 g/dL. Packed cell volume and plasma glucose concentration did not appear to vary with age. White cell counts ranged from 6.3 to 7.0 x 10(9)/L and differential counts indicated neutrophils > lymphocytes > monocytes > eosinophils > basophils. In general, the values for packed cell volume, red cell count, mean cell volumes and mean cell haemoglobin concentrations were within ranges previously reported for captive or sedated rusa deer. CONCLUSIONS: Physical restraint and resultant stress was sufficient to generate some of the effects previously reported for physically immobilised or agitated deer. The values reported here do not differ greatly from those previously reported for rusa deer and can be used as reference values for clinically healthy young farmed male rusa deer.     

An estimate of specificity for a Johne's disease absorbed ELISA in northern Australian cattle

Objective To estimate the specificity of an absorbed enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent assay kit^d for Johne's disease (JD) when used in mature cattle populations resident in northern Australia.
Design Blood samples were collected from beef cattle in northern Queensland, the Northern Territory and northern Western Australia, and from dairy cattle in northern Queensland. The specificity of a serological test for JD was estimated by testing the blood samples with an absorbed ELISA kit. Further samples were collected from cattle with positive ELISA results to determine the presence or absence of infection with Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis .
Procedure During 1995 and 1996, blood, tissue and gut contents were collected from beef cattle at abattoirs in Queensland and the Northern Territory; and blood and faecal samples were collected from dairy cattle in herds assessed to be most at risk for JD in northern Queensland. The blood samples were tested using an absorbed ELISA kit. Tissues and gut contents from beef cattle that had positive ELISA results were cultured for M avium subsp paratuberculosis , and tissues were examined histo-logically. Faecal samples from dairy cattle with positive ELISA results were cultured for M avium subsp paratuberculosis .
Results Estimates of specificity for this absorbed ELISA in mature northern Australian cattle were 98.0% (97.0 to 98.8%, 95% CI) in beef cattle, and 98.3% (96.7 to 99.3%, 95% CI) in dairy cattle.
Conclusion Estimates of specificity in this study were lower for beef cattle from the Northern Territory and northern Western Australia and for dairy cattle from northern Queensland than those quoted from studies on cattle in southern Western Australia. This should be considered when serological testing using the JD ELISA is carried out on northern Australian cattle.     

Haematology and plasma biochemistry of Stamboek pre-pubertal gilts in Italy: reference values

Blood samples were taken between February and April from 105 healthy Stamboek pre-pubertal gilts, aged 1-3 months, which were housed at a modern pig farm in northern Italy. The blood was analysed for nine haematological and nine selected haematochemical variables by means of automated and semiautomated blood analysis apparatus. After detection and rejection of outliers, the data were submitted to reference limits evaluation, also taking into account the limits for the red blood cell volume histogram as the anisocytosis index. Some haematological reference values deal with previously published data; in the haematochemical parameters, several discrepancies between evaluated limits and existing reference limits were noted, mainly for aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase and lactate dehydrogenase levels and total protein concentration. The results confirm the relevance of age in determining blood reference intervals and that 'normal' values should be determined by each laboratory, taking into account the age of subjects, the sample size and methods of analysis.     

Inappropriate feeding practice favors the transmission of Trichinella papuae from wild pigs to saltwater crocodiles in Papua New Guinea

The recent discovery of Trichinella zimbabwensis in farmed crocodiles (Crocodilus niloticus) of Zimbabwe and its ability to infect mammals, and the development of both T. zimbabwensis and Trichinella papuae in experimentally infected reptiles led to an investigation of Trichinella infection in saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) and in wild pigs (Sus scrofa) of Papua New Guinea, to see if T. papuae also, is present in both cold- and warm-blooded animals. Of 222 crocodiles examined, 47 animals (21.2%), all from Kikori, Gulf Province, were positive for non-encapsulated larvae in the muscles. The greatest number of larvae was found usually in the biceps, with an average of 7 larvae/g. One isolate from a crocodile infected successfully both laboratory rats and mice. Of 81 wild pigs examined, 9 from Bensbach river area (Western Province) and 1 from Kikori area (Gulf Province) were positive for non-encapsulated larvae in the muscles. Trichinella larvae from both saltwater crocodiles and wild pigs have been identified by multiplex-PCR analysis as T. papuae. The sequence analysis of the region within the large subunit ribosomal DNA, known as the expansion segment V, has shown the presence of a molecular marker distinguishing T. papuae isolates of Bensbach river area from those of Kikori area. This marker could be useful to trace back the geographical origin of the infected animal. The epidemiological investigation carried out in the Kikori area has shown that local people catch young crocodiles in the wild and keep them in holding pens for several months, before sending them to the crocodile farm in Lae (Morobe Province). They feed the crocodiles primarily with wild pig meat bought at the local market and also with fish. These results stress the importance of using artificial digestion for routinely screening of swine and crocodiles, and of adopting measures for preventing the spread of infection, such as the proper disposal of carcasses and the adequate freezing of meat.     

The effects of automated plasmapheresis on clinical, haematological, biochemical and coagulation variables in horses

The goal of this study was to determine the effects of plasmapheresis on the behaviour, general condition, haematological, biochemical and coagulation variables of donor horses for 32 days following the procedure. Twenty millilitres of plasma/kg body weight were collected via plasmapheresis in six clinically healthy horses. The general behaviour and condition of the horses was not affected by the procedure. During plasmapheresis, there was a mild increase in the haematocrit, haemoglobin concentration and total erythrocyte and leucocyte counts (P < 0.01). The mean concentrations of total protein and albumin decreased significantly (P < 0.01) and total protein did not normalise for about three weeks. Several other biochemical variables also decreased significantly during plasmapheresis, but mostly remained within reference ranges. After plasmapheresis, the mean value of the activated partial thromboplastin time and the thrombin time were mildly but significantly increased (P < 0.01), and the mean activities of factor V, factor VIII and antithrombin decreased significantly (P < 0.01), although all coagulation values remained within reference ranges. Our results indicate that, in horses, the collection of 20 mL of plasma/kg body weight via plasmapheresis results in mild changes in several haematological, biochemical and coagulation variables, although these were of no clinical relevance for the donors.     

A preliminary disease survey in the wild Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) population in the Okavango Delta, Botswana

The objective of this study was to conduct a preliminary survey of diseases that might be present in the wild Nile crocodile population in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Blood samples were collected from crocodiles ranging in size from 34.0 cm to 463.0 cm total length. Samples were examined for blood parasites and underwent a haematological analysis. Before release the crocodiles were examined for various clinical abnormalities. Of the 144 crocodiles examined, none were visibly sick or displayed any signs of disease. No antibodies to Mycoplasma crocodyli were detected. Hepatozoon pettiti was present in 55.3% of blood smears examined, but there was no significant difference in any of the haematological values between the infected and uninfected crocodiles, and a high prevalence of Hepatozoon infection is not uncommon in other species. Only 7.6% of the examined crocodiles were infested with leeches. Further research is required for several of the crocodilian diseases, in particular to elucidate the role of wild crocodilians as reservoirs of infection.     

Cardiovascular, haematological and biochemical responses after large volume blood collection in horses.

To determine whether removal of 20 mL/kg of blood (approximately 25% of blood volume) resulted in adverse physiological effects in donor horses, we removed this volume of blood from five horses and selected cardiovascular, haematological and biochemical variables measured during collection and for 31 days thereafter. We found that alteration in most variables occurred, although the changes in values usually remained within published reference ranges. Also, recovery of these alterations to pre-collection values was rapid, occurring within 24--48 h in most instances. We concluded that volumes of blood less than or equal to 20 mL/kg when collected appropriately from healthy donor horses result in no adverse acute or chronic physiological changes. These results suggest that horses undergo adequate physiological compensation when approximately 25% of blood volume is removed for the purposes of blood donation or production of plasma.     

Haematological, serum biochemical and serological features of platypuses with and without mycotic granulomatous dermatitis

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether there are haematological, serum biochemical and serological differences between platypuses (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) with and without granulomatous dermatitis due to Mucor amphibiorum infection. An additional objective was to establish reference haematological and serum biochemical ranges for the species in Tasmania. DESIGN: A clinicopathological and serological study. ANIMALS: A total of 37 free-living adult platypuses captured from streams and dams in Northern Tasmania were used in the clinicopathological study. Twenty-seven were clinically normal and 10 had mycotic granulomatous dermatitis. A total of 22 platypuses (20 adult and 2 juvenile) were used for the serosurvey. Eighteen were captured from streams in Northern Tasmania, and four were submitted for necropsy. RESULTS: Platypuses with mycotic ulcerative dermatitis had significantly smaller packed red cell volumes, haemoglobin concentrations, lymphocyte counts, serum cholesterol and calcium concentrations, and higher serum globulin and potassium concentrations than clinically normal animals. The lymphopenia and hyperkalaemia were thought to be clinically significant. Numbers of Trypanosoma binneyi in blood smears were similar between the two groups. Diseased platypuses had higher concentrations of serum antibody against Mucor amphibiorum as determined by ELISA compared to clinically normal platypuses. CONCLUSION: Platypuses affected by mycotic granulomatous dermatitis showed haematological and serum biochemical changes when compared to clinically normal animals from the same Tasmanian sites. A serological survey may be a useful method for detecting the prevalence of exposure to Mucor amphibiorum and humoral immunity in platypus populations both in Tasmania and the mainland of Australia.     

Diabetes mellitus in a koala (Phascolarctos cinereus)

Objective To describe a case of diabetes mellitus in a koala (Phascolarctos cinereus).
Design A case report with controls.
Procedures We describe clinical and laboratory findings in a 6-year-old, free-living, female koala presented with traumatic injury and subsequently found to have polydipsia, hyperglycaemia and glucosuria. Over a 5 week period, serum biochemical analyses, haematological examinations, urinal-yses, measurement of serum insulin and fructosamine concentrations, necropsy, histopathological examination of a range of tissues and immunohistochemical examination of the pancreas for insulin-containing cells were done. For reference purposes, serum insulin and fructosamine concentrations were determined in four and two healthy koalas, respectively, and three healthy koalas pancreases were examined histo-logically and immunohistochemically.
Results The koala had persistent hyperglycaemia, hyperlipidaemia, hyponatraemia, hypochloraemia and glucosuria. Serum insulin concentration of the diabetic koala was only marginally smaller than that of healthy koalas, but all concentrations were smaller than reference concentrations in dogs and people. Fructosamine concentration did not allow the diabetic koala to be distinguished from healthy koalas and concentrations of all koala analytes were greater than expected for healthy dogs and people. Histopathological examination revealed extensive degeneration of pancreatic islet cells and fatty infiltration of hepatocytes. Immunoperoxidase staining revealed decreased or absent insulin in the b cells of the affected koala.
Conclusion Clinical signs, clinicopathological results and histopathological changes were consistent with diabetes mellitus. The pathogenesis of the condition could not be determined but may have been related to the administration of a parenteral corticosteroid preparation, the stress of capture or tissue damage and inflammation.     

Effects of two large doses of equine recombinant growth hormone on clinical, haematological and serum biochemical variables in adult horses

Objective To evaluate the clinical, haematological, and serum biochemical effects of two large doses of recombinant equine growth hormone.
Design Duplicated Latin square.
Sample population
Three Thoroughbred and three Standardbred mares aged between 12 and 17 years.
Procedure Two horses were randomly assigned into one of three groups. On each of three successive days, each horse pair received one of two dosages of growth hormone or a saline placebo so that by the end of the experiment all three horse pairs had received both dosages and the saline placebo. Dose rates selected were 50 μg/kg, and 100 μg/kg. A clinical examination was performed and a venous blood sample drawn for a complete blood count and serum biochemical analysis before administration of growth hormone and at 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 and 24 h after injection. Data were analysed by a repeated measures analysis of variance assessing the effects of dose and time.
Results There was an effect of time on a number of clinical, haematological, and serum biochemical variables. There were significant effects of growth hormone on heart rate and serum glucose concentration but values for both variables remained within the reference range.
Conclusion The results of the present study suggest that equine recombinant growth hormone has a wide margin of safety and show that the single administration of up to five times the recommended dose rate has no significant effects on clinical, haematological, or serum biochemical variables.     

Estimating clinical chemistry reference values based on an existing data set of unselected animals

In an attempt to standardise the determination of biological reference values, the International Federation of Clinical Chemistry (IFCC) has published a series of recommendations on developing reference intervals. The IFCC recommends the use of an a priori sampling of at least 120 healthy individuals. However, such a high number of samples and laboratory analysis is expensive, time-consuming and not always feasible, especially in veterinary medicine. In this paper, an alternative (a posteriori) method is described and is used to determine reference intervals for biochemical parameters of farm animals using an existing laboratory data set. The method used was based on the detection and removal of outliers to obtain a large sample of animals likely to be healthy from the existing data set. This allowed the estimation of reliable reference intervals for biochemical parameters in Sarda dairy sheep. This method may also be useful for the determination of reference intervals for different species, ages and gender.     

Serum Cardiac Troponin I Concentration in Retired Racing Greyhounds

Background: Cardiac troponin I (cTnI) is a polypeptide found specifically in cardiac muscle tissue that has been used as a diagnostic and prognostic indicator of cardiomyopathy. Increases in cTnI are associated with myocardial pathologic processes. However, high serum cTnI concentrations have been observed in normal Greyhounds.
Hypothesis: We hypothesized that Greyhounds have cTnI concentrations higher than non-Greyhound dogs, and that a separate reference range should be established for Greyhounds.
Animals: Blood samples were collected from the jugular vein from a group of 20 healthy Greyhound blood donors.
Methods: Analysis of serum cTnI was performed with an immunoassay system with a detection level of 0.01 ng/mL, as described previously. The Greyhound values were compared with 2 groups of Boxers with and without arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC), and to a group of non-Boxer control dogs from a previous study.
Results: The mean cTnI concentration in Greyhounds was significantly higher ( P < .0001) than that in non-Greyhound control dogs, although not significantly different from normal Boxers ( P = .50), or Boxers with ARVC ( P = .58). Greyhound serum cTnI concentrations were in the range found in Boxers with ARVC. The proposed reference range for cTnI in Greyhounds is 0.05–0.16 ng/mL.
Conclusions and Clinical Importance: Greyhounds have a reference range for serum cTnI concentrations that differs from that of other previously published reference ranges for dogs of other breeds. Until a broader database and more precise reference range can be established, caution should be exercised in interpreting serum cTnI concentrations in Greyhounds with suspected cardiac disease.     

Hematologic and biochemical reference intervals for Norwegian crossbreed grower pigs

Background: Hematologic and biochemical reference intervals depend on many factors, including environment and age. Reference intervals for Norwegian grower pigs are lacking, and previously published reference intervals for similar pigs from other countries are now outdated due to significant changes in management and breeding on the pig farms. Objectives: The aim of this study was to determine updated reference intervals for hematologic and biochemical analytes in healthy crossbred grower pigs, and to compare the results among 3 different farms. Methods: Blood samples were collected from 104 clinically healthy pigs of the most common Norwegian crossbreed (Landrace Yorkshire sow × Landrace Duroc boar). The pigs were 12–16 weeks old, weighed 30–50 kg, of both sexes, and lived on 3 farms in eastern Norway. Automated hematologic and biochemical analysis were performed using ADVIA 2120 and ADVIA 1650 analyzers. Results: Five samples were excluded because of hemolysis (1) or outliers (4). Reference intervals were calculated using parametric or nonparametric methods, depending on data distribution. Mean, median, minimum, and maximum values were tabulated. Conclusions: The reference intervals calculated in this study will be useful for the diagnosis and monitoring of disease in this widespread crossbreed pig. Compared with previously published reference values, reference intervals for total WBC count, creatine kinase and alanine aminotransferase activities, and albumin, bilirubin, and urea concentrations in this study differed notably.     

Haematological and serum biochemical values of southern chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica)

Blood samples were taken from 75 free-ranging southern chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica) captured in drive-nets in Catalonia, north-eastern Spain, and 20 haematological and 24 serum biochemical variables were analysed. The values were similar to those of other species of the Caprinae subfamily, except for cortisol, the concentration of which was higher. The red blood cell count (RBC), platelets and leucocytes, and the concentrations of cortisol, lactate, muscular enzymes and gamma-globulins were higher in summer than in spring, whereas the mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular haemoglobin, mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration, and the concentrations of cholesterol, total bilirubin and creatinine were lower. Adult males had higher RBCs and haemoglobin values than females in summer, and lower leucocyte, lymphocyte and neutrophil counts than females and yearling males. The concentrations of triglycerides, total bilirubin, lactate, creatinine, urea, chloride and alpha2-globulins were higher in adult males than yearling males. In summer the adult females had higher values for platelets, lymphocytes, cortisol, sodium and muscular enzymes.     

Normal haematological and biochemical values for the swamp buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in Australia

SUMMARY: Blood samples were collected from 24 immature male, 55 immature female and 99 mature female water buffalo kept at an experimental farm in the Northern Territory. Haematological analysis was performed on blood collected in dipotassium — ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid while biochemical analysis was performed on serum and plasma (for glucose) samples. Haematological values of mature buffalo were similar to those recorded for swamp buffalo in Malaysia. Blood cell appearances were similar to those reported for adult Indian river buffalo though values recorded for red cell components were higher. Statistical analysis revealed no significant differences between immature male and female buffalo. Red cell components, eosinophils, total plasma and serum proteins, albumin, γ globulins, inorganic phosphate and the enzyme gamma-glutamyl transferase were significantly higher for mature female buffalo when compared to immature females. Reasons for the differences were not fully determined but the effect of age and nutritional status in combination with a variable period of domestication were considered.     

Evaluation of equine hemograms using the ADVIA 120 as compared with an impedance counter and manual differential count

BACKGROUND: The ADVIA 120 is an automated laser cell counter widely used in veterinary medicine. Although specific software for equine samples is available and validated, only a few reports have been published comparing the ADVIA 120 with other methods for equine hemogram evaluation. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to compare the hematologic values and reference intervals obtained on the ADVIA 120 with those obtained on an impedance cell counter and manual differential counts in healthy horses. METHODS: EDTA-anticoagulated blood samples were obtained from 114 clinically healthy horses of various breeds, both sexes, and 2-6 years of age. Samples were stored for up to 12 hours at 4 degrees C and then analyzed on the ADVIA 120 and the Hemat 8. A 100-cell to 200-cell differential leukocyte count was performed by 3 independent observers on May-Grünwald-Giemsa-stained smears. Intra-assay precision of the ADVIA 120 was determined by analyzing 5 replicates each of 10 of the blood samples. RESULTS: Results from the ADVIA were significantly higher than those from the impedance counter for RBC count, total WBC count, hemoglobin concentration, red cell distribution width, MCH, and MCHC, and significantly lower for HCT and platelet count. Significantly higher neutrophil and basophil counts and significantly lower lymphocyte counts were obtained with the ADVIA 120 compared with manual counts. Based on Passing-Bablok regression analysis, RBC and platelet counts were in good agreement between the 2 analyzers; a constant and proportional bias was present for other values. Coefficients of variation for erythrocyte parameters on the ADVIA were <1%, but were higher for platelet (6%), total WBC (2%), differential WBC (4%-30%), and reticulocyte (75%) counts. CONCLUSIONS: Results obtained with equine samples on the ADVIA 120 were comparable with those obtained on an impedance counter; reference intervals differed statistically but overlapped. The ADVIA had poor precision for reticulocyte and differential leukocyte counts such that the latter should always be verified on smears.     

Blood platelet counts, morphology and morphometry in lions, Panthera leo

Due to logistical problems in obtaining sufficient blood samples from apparently healthy animals in the wild in order to establish normal haematological reference values, only limited information regarding the blood platelet count and morphology of free-living lions (Panthera leo) is available. This study provides information on platelet counts and describes their morphology with particular reference to size in two normal, healthy and free-ranging lion populations. Blood samples were collected from a total of 16 lions. Platelet counts, determined manually, ranged between 218 and 358 x 10(9)/l. Light microscopy showed mostly activated platelets of various sizes with prominent granules. At the ultrastructural level the platelets revealed typical mammalian platelet morphology. However, morphometric analysis revealed a significant difference (P < 0.001) in platelet size between the two groups of animals. Basic haematological information obtained in this study may be helpful in future comparative studies between animals of the same species as well as in other felids.