Thoracic auscultation in captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), California sea lions (Zalophus californianus), and South African fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus) with an electronic stethoscope

Thoracic auscultation is an important diagnostic method used in cases of suspected pulmonary disease in many species, as respiratory sounds contain significant information on the physiology and pathology of the lungs and upper airways. Respiratory diseases are frequent in marine mammals and are often listed as one of their main causes of death. The aim of this study was to investigate and report baseline parameters for the electronic-mediated thoracic auscultation of one cetacean species and two pinniped species in captivity. Respiratory sounds from 20 captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), 6 California sea lions (Zalophus californianus), and 5 South African fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus) were recorded with an electronic stethoscope. The sounds were analyzed for duration of the respiratory cycle, adventitious sounds, and peak frequencies of recorded sounds during expiration and inspiration as well as for sound intensity as reflected by waveform amplitude during the respiratory cycle. In respiratory cycles of the bottlenose dolphins' expiring "on command," the duration of the expiration was significantly shorter than the duration of the inspiration. In the examined pinnipeds of this study, there was no clear pattern concerning the duration of one breathing phase: Adventitious sounds were detected most often in bottlenose dolphins that were expiring on command and could be compared with "forced expiratory wheezes" in humans. This is the first report of forced expiratory wheezes in bottlenose dolphins; they can easily be misinterpreted as pathologic respiratory sounds. The peak frequencies of the respiratory sounds reached over 2,000 Hz in bottlenose dolphins and over 1,000 Hz in California sea lions and South African fur seals, but the variation of the frequency spectra was very high in all animals. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first systematic analysis of respiratory sounds of bottlenose dolphins and two species of pinnipeds.     

Evaluation of tickGARD(PLUS), a novel vaccine against Boophilus microplus, in lactating Holstein-Friesian cows

The effects of vaccination with the Bm 86 vaccine TickGARD(PLUS) against infestation with cattle tick (Boophilus microplus) and of holding cattle on a feedpad until 09:00 hours after the morning milking was tested on 40 mid lactation Holstein cattle using a factorial design. Vaccination resulted in a 56% reduction in tick numbers in the field over one generation, and a 72% reduction in laboratory measures of the reproductive efficiency of ticks. The liveweight gain of vaccinated cattle over 27 weeks was 18.6 kg higher than that of controls, and vaccinated cattle tended to have lower somatic cell count in milk (SCC). There were no other significant differences in measures of production. Cattle kept on the feedpad after the morning milking carried 26% more ticks than those returned immediately to their paddocks.     

Expression of transforming growth factor beta(1), beta(3), and basic fibroblast growth factor in full-thickness skin wounds of equine limbs and thorax

OBJECTIVE--To map the expression of transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta(1), TGF-beta(3), and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) in full-thickness skin wounds of the horse. To determine whether their expression differs between limbs and thorax, to understand the pathogenesis of exuberant granulation tissue. STUDY DESIGN--Six wounds were created on one lateral metacarpal area and one midthoracic area of each horse. Sequential wound biopsies allowed comparison of the temporal expression of growth factors between limb and thoracic wounds. ANIMALS--Four 2- to 4-year-old horses. METHODS--Wounds were assessed grossly and histologically at 12 and 24 hours, and 2, 5, 10, and 14 days postoperatively. ELISAs were used to measure the growth factor concentrations of homogenates of wound biopsies taken at the same timepoints. RESULTS--TGF-beta(1) peaked at 24 hours in both locations and returned to baseline in thoracic wounds by 14 days but remained elevated in limb wounds for the duration of the study. Expression kinetics of TGF-beta(3) differed from those of TGF-beta(1). TGF-beta(3) concentrations gradually increased over time, showing a trend toward an earlier and higher peak in thoracic compared with limb wounds. bFGF expression kinetics resembled those of TGF-beta(1), but no statistically significant differences existed between limb and thoracic wounds. CONCLUSIONS--Growth factor expression is up-regulated during normal equine wound repair. TGF-beta(1) and TGF-beta(3) show a reciprocal temporal regulation. Statistically significant differences exist between limb and thoracic wounds with respect to TGF-beta(1) expression. CLINICAL RELEVANCE--The persistence of TGF-beta(1) expression in leg wounds may be related to the development of exuberant granulation tissue in this location, because TGF-beta(1) is profibrotic.     

The scavenging behaviour of ferrets (Mustela furo), feral cats (Felis domesticus), possums (Trichosurus vulpecula), hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) and harrier hawks (Circus approximans) on pastoral farmland in New Zealand: implications for bovine tuberculosis transmission

AIMS: To identify species that scavenge carcasses in pastoral habitats in New Zealand; to determine whether there were interspecific or intraspecific differences in scavenging behaviour and; to document any interspecific or intraspecific interactions occurring at carcasses. METHODS: Scavenging by ferrets (Mustela furo), feral cats (Felis domesticus), possums (Trichosurus vulpecula), hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) and harrier hawks (Circus approximans) was studied from autumn to midwinter on pastoral farmland near Palmerston (45S, 170E), Otago, New Zealand. Time-lapse video recorders and camera lens mounted with infra-red light illumination were used to monitor carcasses of 10 ferrets, 12 possums, 2 hedgehogs and 7 rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) until they were totally scavenged. RESULTS: Ferrets scavenged 5/8 ferret carcasses, 8/9 possum carcasses and 6/7 rabbit carcasses encountered. Feral cats scavenged 3/8 ferret carcasses, 5/7 rabbit carcasses, and 3/8 possum carcasses encountered. Possums scavenged 1/2 ferret carcasses and 3/4 rabbit carcasses encountered. The proportion of encounters resulting in feeding on ferret carcasses differed between ferrets (45.7%) and possums (6.3%), and between possums and cats (29.7%). Similarly, for possum carcasses, differences were found between ferrets (76.6%) and possums (0%), ferrets and cats (60.6%) and possums and cats. No interspecific differences were found in the proportion of encounters that resulted in feeding on rabbit carcasses between ferrets (85.2%), possums (75%) and cats (73.1%). In 8/12 instances of ferrets coming into contact with other ferrets whilst feeding, ferrets fed together at the carcass. On 1 occasion, 4 ferrets were recorded feeding together. In 7/8 instances where cats and ferrets came into contact over carrion, ferrets maintained possession or displaced the cat from the carcass. CONCLUSIONS: Communal carrion feeding by ferrets may facilitate intraspecific and interspecific transmission of bovine tuberculosis (caused by Mycobacterium bovis) by the consumption of contaminated carrion, fighting, or close-contact activities. Cannibalism may be one mechanism by which tuberculosis is transmitted within ferret populations. Our results also suggest that possums may acquire infection from carrion, despite being mainly herbivorous.     

Saksenaea vasiformis and Apophysomyces elegans zygomycotic infections in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), a killer whale (Orcinus orca), and pacific white-sided dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens).

During a 10-yr period, a killer whale (Orcinus orca), two Pacific white-sided dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens), and two bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), all housed at SeaWorld of Texas from 1991 to 2001, were infected with fungi from the class Zygomycetes. In four out of five cases, the fungi were identified as either Saksenaea vasiformis or Apophysomyces elegans. All fungi in the class Zygomycetes aggressively invade the vascular system. Death occurred within 23 days after the initial clinical signs. The primary site of infection involved the s.c. tissue and skeletal musculature. In one case, infection originated in the placenta and uterus of a periparturient animal. All cases exhibited systemic spread of the organisms, including two to the central nervous system. The fifth and most recent case, a bottlenose dolphin, was treated with liposomal nystatin, an antifungal formulation with reduced nephrotoxicity. This animal initially responded to therapy; however, 14 days after cessation of therapy, fungal growth reoccurred. Thus, the animal was euthanatized 39 days after the initial clinical signs. This drug represents a promising treatment option if combined with early disease detection and aggressive tissue resection.     

Pup Growth Rates and Breeding Female Weight Changes in Two Populations of Captive Bred Degus (Octodon degus), a Precocial Caviomorph Rodent

Caviomorph rodents are renowned for comparatively long gestations and producing relatively precocious offspring. The degu (Octodon degus) is one such caviomorph, originating in central Chile and providing communal pup care within wild groups. Reported are pup growth data for two populations of captive bred degus in Britain and Chile (representing wild populations), for the first time analysing pup development over the postpartum and weaning period in detail. Pups in both colonies were found to be similarly precocial at birth as assessed by open eyes and presence of full body hair. Degu pups in the British colonies put on weight at a rate of 2–3 g/day, while pups in the Chilean colonies put on weight at a rate of 1–2 g/day over the first 14 days. At birth, individual neonates weighed 5 ± 1% of maternal mass for the British sample and 6 ± 0.5% for the Chilean sample. Sexual dimorphism occurred in the weight and growth rates of pups in both samples, despite the lack of sexual dimorphism in adults of the species. Data for breeding female weight changes were also analysed, providing the first reported observations for this crucial period. Pregnant female weight gain was found to vary over the course of gestation, and post partum weight changes varied significantly between breeding females in accordance with litter size.     

Syngamiasis in juvenile American robins (Turdus migratorius), with a note on the prevalence of other fecal parasites

Of 105 juvenile American robins (Turdus migratorius L.) examined for fecal parasites, 77.1% were infected with one or more species of endoparasite. Syngamus sp. was the most commonly encountered parasite, found in 57.1% of the birds. There was a significant association between the presence of Syngamus sp. eggs in feces and signs of respiratory-tract disease. A single oral dose of fenbendazole (100 mg/kg of body weight) eliminated Syngamus sp. infection from all of 18 birds treated, yet 10 of 16 untreated controls apparently were "self-cured" over the 12-day period of observation.     

The "diseased" or "dead" guillemots (Uria aalge), three-toed gulls (Rissa tridactyla), silver gulls (Larus argentatus) and laughing gulls (Larus ridibundus) found in the area of the German Bay, 1982-1985

Between 1982 and 1985 the cadavers of 50 Guillemots (Uria aalge), 41 Kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla), 26 Herring Gulls (Larus argentatus) and 34 Black-headed Gulls (Larus ridibundus) were examined pathological, bacteriological and virological. The probable cause of death was established. Parasitosis were particularly prevalent in Herring Gulls (49%), where the main infection--as in Black-headed Gulls--was with Cestoides. In Kittiwakes and Guillemots mainly Spiruroideae were recorded. The commonest bacterium isolated in organs and intestinal tract was Escherichia coli, followed by Aeromonas hydrophila and Clostridium perfringens. Salmonella were found in the organs of 5% and in the intestinal tract of 3% of the birds. The species of Salmonella most frequently isolated was Salmonella typhimurium varieties copenhagen. Also recorded were Yersinia intermedia Serovar 0:17 (1x), Pseudomonas spp. (2x), bacteria of the Haemophilus-Pasteurella-Actinobacillus group (1x), Pasteurella multocida (2x), Moraxella septicaemiae (1x), Campylobacter spec. (1x), Mycoplasma spec. (6x), DNase positive Staphylococcus spec. (4x) and Streptococcus spec. (6x). Less in evidence among the birds examined were fungus diseases with Aspergillus spec. (4x) and Blastomyces spec. (4x). As for viruses one Guillemot was found to have an Adenovirus and another one to have a Paramyxovirus. From one of the Herring Gulls there also was isolated a Paramyxovirus, from a second one to a Reovirus. Three other species isolated have get to be identified. The chief cause of sickness and death in the Guillemots was oil-contamination. The majority of the examined Kittiwakes and Herring Gulls were victims of pathogenic agents. Many of the Black-headed Gulls died through traumata as gunshots or road traffic etc. In order to establish the causes of sickness and death in seabirds and to ascertain the importance of the various species as possible carriers of infectious diseases, a systematic series of investigation will be necessary. Without this it will not be possible to assess their epidemiological relevance for other wild birds, domestic poultry and humans.     

Serologic responses of Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia), Indian antelope (Antilope cervicapra), wallaroos (Macropus robustus), and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) to an inactivated encephalomyocarditis virus vaccine.

Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) is a picornavirus with a worldwide distribution, capable of infecting a wide range of species. Episodes of EMCV-associated mortality have been reported in zoos and national parks around the world, including sporadic cases at Taronga Zoo, Sydney. An inactivated EMCV vaccine was evaluated by inoculating Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia), Indian antelope (Antilope cervicapra), Eastern wallaroos (Macropus robustus), and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). A proportion of the vaccinated ungulates were administered a second vaccination 4 wk after the initial dose. Neutralizing antibody titers were monitored for a period of 12 mo. One month after vaccination, all vaccinated groups had developed significant antibody titers that persisted for at least 6 mo. Animals receiving two doses of vaccine had higher titers 3, 6, and 12 mo after the initial vaccination compared with animals receiving a single vaccine dose.     

Comprehensive immunohistochemical studies on canine necrotizing meningoencephalitis (NME), necrotizing leukoencephalitis (NLE), and granulomatous meningoencephalomyelitis (GME)

In dogs, there are several idiopathic meningoencephalitides, such as necrotizing meningoencephalitis (NME), necrotizing leukoencephalitis (NLE), and granulomatous meningoencephalomyelitis (GME). Although they are often assumed to be immune mediated, the etiology of these diseases remains elusive. In this study, the histopathology of the lesions caused by these conditions and the inflammatory cell populations produced in response to them were examined among dogs affected with GME, NME, or NLE to understand their pathogeneses. The brain tissues of dogs with NME (n = 25), NLE (n = 5), or GME (n = 9) were used. The inflammatory cells were identified by immunohistochemistry using antibodies against CD3, IgG, CD20, CD79acy, and CD163. In NME and NLE, malacic changes were located in the cerebral cortex, as well as the cerebral white matter and thalamus, respectively. The distribution of the brain lesions in NME and NLE was breed specific. In GME, granulomatous lesions that were mostly composed of epithelioid macrophages were observed in the cerebral white matter, cerebellum, and brainstem. Although the proportions of IgG-, CD20-, and CD79acy-positive cells (B cells) were not significantly different among the GME, NME, and NLE lesions, that of CD3-positive cells (T cells) was increased in GME. In NME and NLE, CD163-positive cells (macrophages) had diffusely infiltrated the cerebral cortex and white matter, respectively. However, in GME, CD163-positive cells accumulated around the blood vessels in the cerebral and cerebellar white matter. The distributions of these lesions were quite different among GME, NME, and NLE, whereas there were no marked differences in the proportions of inflammatory cells.     

Pathological findings in a captive colony of maras (Dolichotis patagonum)

This paper describes the causes of death of 54 maras (Dolichotis patagonum) in a captive colony in Mexico over a period of seven years. There were 35 adults, 11 juveniles, five neonates, two fetuses and one stillbirth--27 males, 21 females and six whose sex was not determined. Trauma was the cause of 25 deaths, and there were eight cases of fatal bacterial infection. Besnoitiosis was the only parasitic disease found frequently (13 cases), and was associated with fatal interstitial pneumonia in three juveniles. Right-sided hypertrophic cardiomyopathy attributed to high altitude was observed in 26 maras, and in three cases death was attributed to acute cardiac dysfunction. Two maras died of disseminated histoplasmosis and two of hyperthermia. Additional causes of death included one case each of uterine torsion, intestinal intussusception, aspiration pneumonia and hydranencephaly. Gastric erosions with luminal haemorrhage were found in 27 of the maras and splenic lymphoid depletion in 20, changes that were attributed to stress.     

Clinical use of a haemoglobin-based oxygen carrying solution (Oxyglobin) in 48 cats (2002-2006)

The objective of this retrospective study was the evaluation of the administration of a haemoglobin (Hb)-based oxygen carrying solution (Oxyglobin) to cats over a time period of 4 years. Indication, infusion volume/24h, number of Oxyglobin infusions/cat, Hb concentration pre- and post-infusion, adverse events, and patient outcome were evaluated. Forty-eight anaemic cats received 65 Oxyglobin infusions. Prior to administration of Oxyglobin, Hb concentration ranged from 2 to 7.8 g/dl (median 4.9 g/dl), the volume of Oxyglobin administered was 4.4-25 ml/kg/24h (median 9.8 ml/kg/24h). An increase of Hb was noted after 41 of 49 infusion events. Severe side effects were noted in seven cats with cardiac disease, which developed pulmonary oedema (five), pleural effusion (three), and respiratory distress (one). They received 6.7-19.8 ml/kg/24h (median 12.3 ml/kg/24h) of Oxyglobin. Four of these seven cats received whole blood transfusions on the same day; five cats died and one was euthanased. Overall 24-h survival rate was 77%. Administration of Oxyglobin efficiently increased the Hb concentration. However, in cats suffering from cardiac disease, there is a high risk of life-threatening circulatory overload at the doses used in this study.     

Evaluation of a number of commercial diets for iguana (Iguana iguana), bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps), and land and marsh tortoises

Fifteen commercially available, complete diets for iguanas, bearded dragons, and chelonians were analysed and compared with the ideal composition of a diet formulated by the authors. The clinical risks of feeding with a too high or a too low content of specific nutrients are described. Nutrient deficiencies are not expected if these diets are the sole source of nutrients. However, one diet had only a marginally adequate protein content, five diets for herbivorous reptiles contained a too low percentage of crude fibre, three diets contained an undesirably high percentage of calcium, and three diets had an extremely high iron content. As a rule, the calcium and iron contents of diets are not declared on the food label, which complicates evaluation of the diets.     

Acute monensin toxicosis in Stone sheep (Ovis dalli stonei), blesbok (Damaliscus dorcus phillipsi), and a Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus)

Accidental monensin toxicosis developed in 5 Stone sheep (Ovis dalli stonei), 5 blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi), and a Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) at the St Louis Zoological Park. Eight animals died acutely and 1 was euthanatized because of chronic hind limb paresis. All affected animals had clinicopathologic evidence of severe muscle necrosis, serum electrolyte disturbances, and hemoconcentration.     

Management, breeding, and health records from a captive colony of pekin robins (Leiothrix lutea), 2001 - 2010

Pekin robins (Leiothrix lutea) were once the most widely kept softbills in captivity. As a result of the Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES-1997), the worldwide trade of wild-caught pekin robins has been prohibited due to the depletion of native populations of this species. In Brazil, as in other countries, pekin robins imported prior to the enactment of the CITES have disappeared from aviaries because the end of the birds' natural life span has passed, and only very few captive-bred pekin robins now exist. While captive propagation fails to address the primary causes of wild bird population decline, it might help the recovery of populations of this species. This article presents records made over a 10-yr period of a captive colony of pekin robins. Emphasis is placed on the management of the flock, the ailments affecting the birds, and the findings associated with bird losses. The main causes of bird losses included rearing management failures and age-related disorders.     

Familial stomatocytosis--hypertrophic gastritis (FSHG), a newly recognised disease in the dog (Drentse patrijshond)

A newly recognised disease, which we have given the provisional name of familial stomatocytosis-hypertrophic gastritis (FSHG), is described in two families of dogs of the Drentse partrijshond breed. The affected dogs consisted of 3 females and 5 males, 3 to 19 (mean 9.5) months of age at admission. The main clinical problems were diarrhoea, icterus, and ataxia and paresis of the pelvic limbs. Laboratory evaluation revealed abnormal red cell shape (stomatocytosis), increased osmotic fragility, haemolytic anaemia, and increased liver enzymes and serum bilirubin. Gastroscopic and histopathologic examination of the gastric mucosa revealed hypertrophic gastritis resembling Ménétrier's disease in man. Histologic findings in the liver were suggestive of progressive liver disease. Cysts were found in the kidneys of the five oldest patients. Electroneurography in 2 dogs revealed polyneuropathy. In the parents of 2 patients (sister and brother), there were no clinical or laboratory abnormalities. An autosomal recessive hereditary defect of lipid metabolism is suspected.     

Isolation and genetic characterisation of Toxoplasma gondii from a red-handed howler monkey (Alouatta belzebul), a jaguarundi (Puma yagouaroundi), and a black-eared opossum (Didelphis aurita) from Brazil

Toxoplasma gondii isolates are highly diverse in domestic animals from Brazil. However, little is known about the genetics of this parasite from wild mammals in the same region. Reveal genetic similarity or difference of T. gondii among different animal populations is necessary for us to understand transmission of this parasite. Here we reported isolation and genetic characterisation of three T. gondii isolates from wild animals in Brazil. The parasite was isolated by bioassay in mice from tissues of a young male red handed howler monkey (Alouatta belzebul), an adult male jaguarundi (Puma yagouaroundi), and an adult female black-eared opossum (Didelphis aurita). The monkey and the jaguarundi had inhabited the Zoo of Parque Estadual Dois Irm?os, Pernambuco State, Northeastern Brazil, for 1 year and 8 years, respectively. The wild black-eared opossum was captured in S?o Paulo State, Southeastern Brazil, and euthanised for this study because it was seropositive for T. gondii (titre 1:100 by the modified agglutination test, MAT). Ten PCR-RFLP (Polymerase Chain Reaction-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) markers, SAG1, SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1 and Apico, were used to genotype the isolates. T. gondii was isolated from the brain and heart homogenate of the monkey, the muscle homogenate of the jaguarundi, and the heart homogenate of the black-eared opossum. This was the first isolation of T. gondii from a neotropical felid from Brazil. The isolate from the monkey (TgRhHmBr1) was not virulent in mice, whereas the isolates from the jaguarundi (TgJagBr1) and the black-eared opossum (TgOpBr1) were virulent in mice. The genotype of the isolate from the monkey has been identified in isolates from a goat and ten chickens in the same region of Brazil, suggesting that it may be a common lineage circulating in this region. The genotypes of the isolates from the jaguarundi and the black-eared opossum have not been previously reported. Although there are already 88 genotypes identified from a variety of animal hosts in Brazil, new genotypes are continuously being identified from different animal species, indicating an extremely high diversity of T. gondii in the population.     

Epizootic myocarditis associated with encephalomyocarditis virus in a group of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)

Six cases of fatal myocarditis associated with encephalomyocarditis virus occurred over a 14-month period in a group of outdoor-housed juvenile rhesus macaques. All animals were younger than 3 years of age and died or were euthanized following acute onset of dyspnea or pulmonary effusion (3 of 6) or were found dead without premonitory signs (3 of 6). Gross findings included pulmonary congestion (6 of 6), variable degrees of pleural effusion (4 of 6), multifocal pale tan foci throughout the myocardium (3 of 6), hepatomegaly and hepatic congestion (3 of 6), and pericardial effusion (1 of 6). Histologically, affected myocardium was infiltrated multifocally by lymphoplasmacytic and histiocytic inflammation admixed with necrotic and degenerate myofibers and infrequent mineralization (6 of 6). Pulmonary edema was present in all animals. Encephalomyocarditis virus was confirmed in 6 of 6 hearts by immunohistochemistry, and virus was isolated from one case by polymerase chain reaction. Sequencing of virus isolated from 1 affected animal indicated infection with a novel encephalomyocarditis virus. Encephalomyocarditis virus should be considered as a differential etiology in outbreaks of myocarditis and pulmonary edema in juvenile primates.     

Essential oil composition of Pentzia incana (Asteraceae), an important natural pasture plant in the Karoo region of South Africa

Pentzia incana is one of the most important of all natural pasture plants in the dry interior (Karoo) region of South Africa. This highly aromatic shrub is thought to be responsible for the distinctive flavour of Karoo lamb (a registered geographical indication), yet the essential oil is here characterised for the first time. Leafy twigs are traditionally chewed for relief of stomach ache. Essential oil is associated with numerous small, multicellu- lar glands. Gas chromatography and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis of 17 essential oil samples from five populations showed considerable variation in both yield (0.12% to 0.88% dry weight) and composition. Of interest was the presence of one major biosynthetic group comprising yomogi alcohol (to 38.9%), artemisia alcohol (to 26.1%), artemisia ketone (to 35.0%) and artemisyl acetate (to 9.4%). High levels of fragranol (26.9%) and fragranyl acetate (27.1%) were observed only in a single specimen. Other main compounds were 1,8-cineole (to 16.7%), santolina alcohol (to 11.3%), camphor (to 47.9%), linalyl acetate (to 17.4%) and bicyclogermacrene (to 11.8%). Six of the 10 major compounds were isolated and their identities confirmed by nuclear magnetic resonance. The volatile compounds may possibly be linked to the medicinal use of P. incana, as well as the flavour profile of Karoo lamb.