Biomass production and allometric above- and below-ground relations for young birch stands planted at four spacings on abandoned farmland

The objective of the study was to quantify above- and below-stumpbiomass of silver (Betula pendula Roth) and downy (Betula pubescensEhrh.) birches planted at four spacing intervals and growingon two soil types on an area of farmland. The 12-year-old bircheshad been grown at four spacings (1.3, 1.5, 1.8 and 2.6 m) ontwo sites: one on medium clay soil and the other on fine sandsoil. The dry weight of the stem, branches, leaves, stumps androots was estimated by drying and weighing sub-samples. Theprojected leaf area (PLA) m^–2 of trees, leaf area indexof stands and basic density (kg m^–3)of stems were alsoestimated. A significant greater dry weight of stem, branches,stump and roots and species and spacing for pendula birch werefound. The root length of silver birch was significantly greaterthan that for downy birch and for both species the root lengthwas greatest at the widest spacing (2.6 m). There was also asignificant difference between leaf weights of birch of thesame species growing on the two soil types. Significant differenceswere also found between PLA and species, and for both species,between PLA spacing. Basic density of stems was significantlydifferent between soil types. Equations for estimating the above-groundbiomass and root biomass from diameter at breast height weredeveloped for birches growing on fine sand and on medium claysoils. The total biomass production per hectare on fine sandwas higher for silver birch (19.9–65.9 tonnes ha^–1),than for downy birch (13.0–48.3 tonnes ha^–1). Onmedium clay soil, total biomass production for silver and downybirches was 30.8–52.8 and 16.8–42.8 tonnes ha^–1,respectively.     

Characteristics of lowland broadleaved woodland being restocked by natural regeneration

A survey of 78 sites in southern England with approved managementplans for restocking by natural regeneration was made duringthe summers of 1993 and 1994. The following features were recorded:species, stocking, canopy cover and seed-bearing potential oftrees present in the overstorey; species and canopy cover ofthe understorey; ground cover; species, browsing damage, numberand heights of tree seedlings. In general, sites were poorlystocked with overstorey trees having an average of 135 stemsha^–1 and a mean canopy cover of 36 per cent. Similarly,the understoreys were poorly developed with an average coverof only 23 per cent. Twenty-nine species of tree were foundin the overstorey, Quercus spp. and Fraxinus excelsior werethe most common. Many of the stems present had poor seed-bearingpotential. Cover of the ground flora often exceeded 75 per cent.Seedlings were present on most sites, with F. excelsior andBetula pendula being most abundant with mean seedling densitiesexceeding 10000 ha^–1. Most seedlings were >20 cm tall,few exceeded 120 cm. About 30 per cent of seedlings were browsed.The results are related to current guidance and the future prospectsfor use of natural regeneration.     

Productivity of Closely-spaced Young Poplar on Agricultural Soils in Britain

Recent ideas on ‘silage’ and ‘fuel’forestry call for more information on the total harvestablewoody dry matter produced by hardwoods grown at very close spacingsin fertile soils and coppiced every few years. Yields of oven-driedstems and branches (S and B) are presented here for Populustrichocarpa Torr. and Gray, clone ‘Fritzi Pauley’.Plantings in Bedfordshire at 21 600 trees ha^–1 had a meanannual increment (M.A.I._SB) of 5.2 t ha^–1 y^–1 overfive years, and plantings in the Cambridgeshire fens at 1480trees ha^–1 produced 4.8 t ha^–1 y^–1 over sixyears. Fan-shaped spacing experiments, established in Midlothianby inserting cuttings through black polythene into nursery soilwith added fertilizers, gave 4.6 t ha^–1 y^–1 at theend of the first year and about 7 t ha^–1 y^–1 oneyear after coppicing, but only with over 250 000 stems ha^–1producing closed canopies with leaf area indices of about 4.Similar spacing experiments planted without fertilizer on farmlandin Gloucestershire, Suffolk, Argyll and Midlothian gave averageM.A.I._SB values of 6.5–7.0 t ha^–1 y^–1 afterthree years with over 25 000 trees ha^–1 and similar valuesafter five years with over 10 000 trees ha^–1. Peak currentannual increments (C.A.I._SB) averaged 10–12 t ha^–1y^–1. The maximum M.A.I._SB, attained in Gloucestershire,was 10.0 t ha^–1 y^–1 at age 5 with over 20 000 treesha^–1, with maximum C.A.I._SB values of about 14 t ha^–1y^–1 at age 4; M.A.I._SB values of about 11.5 t ha^–1y^–1 were anticipated at this site by age 6–8. Equivalentstem volumes are given. As expected, trees subjected to competitionaccumulated greater proportions of their woody biomass in stemsrather than branches. Biomass yields of fully-stocked young hardwood stands are independentof planting density. In Britain, M.A.I._SB values of 6–8t ha^–1 y^–1 can be obtained over 1 or 25 years byplanting 250 000 or 2000 trees ha^–1, using vigorous Populusspp, Salix spp or Nothofagus procera on good sites. Advantages and problems of ‘silage’ forestry arediscussed, and it is considered that hardwood fuel coppicescould not meet more than about 2% of national energy needs. The reciprocals of individual tree weights were linearly relatedto planting density.     

Factors influencing tree species diversity and Betula alleghaniensis establishment in silvicultural openings

We examined the short-term effects of group-selection harvestingwith seed tree retention on the diversity, abundance and establishmentof tree seedlings in a northern hardwood forest in the UpperPeninsula of Michigan (49 openings, 20 closed canopy referencesites). Three opening sizes were examined – opening radius0.5 x canopy height (267 ± 62 m², n = 16), 0.75 x canopyheight (642 ± 85 m², n = 17) and 1.0 x canopy height(1192 ± 155 m², n = 16) (canopy height = 22 m). A singleyellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis Britt.) seed tree was retainedin the centre of each opening. Tree seedling density was significantlyhigher in the largest group-selection opening than at the closedcanopy reference sites (P < 0.05), the main factor for thiswas the increased proportion of yellow birch, red maple (Acerrubrum L.) and other minor species. Nevertheless, yellow birchwas still a minor component of the developing gap cohort, comprising5.9 per cent of the seedlings and 1.1 per cent of the saplings.Within openings, microsite variables, such as per cent coversof bare soil and coarse woody debris, were the best predictorsof yellow birch occurrence and density. Our results suggestthat microsite limitations and competing vegetation may greatlyreduce the efficacy of openings for ensuring the maintenanceof mid-tolerants.     

Nutrient Changes in Peaty Gley Soils after Clearfelling of Sitka Spruce Stands

The roots of second-rotation Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis(Bong.) Carr.) planted on peaty gley sites are restricted tothe old litter (LFH) layer and are dependent on its decompositionfor availability of nutrients. A series of these sites of increasingage from felling were sampled to estimate changes in the nutrientcapital of the LFH horizon over time at Kielder Forest, Northumberland.Previous stand histories were reconstructed from stump data.Geographical, climatic, soil and mensurational data suggestedthat the use of a time series was justified. Nutrient capital in the LFH horizon generally declined overa 5 year period after clearfelling from approximately 997, 51and 83 kg ha^–1 to 676, 30 and 31 kg ha^–1 of N, Pand K, respectively. However, N concentration increased overa 5 year period from 11 mg g^–1 to 14 mg g^–1, P concentrationremained constant at about 0.6 mg g^–1, and K concentrationdecreased from 1.0 mg g^–1 to 0.7 mg g^–1. Nutrientconcentrations and contents of the LFH horizon were higher underthe brash (slash) swathes that resulted from the use of organizedfelling techniques than under clear strips devoid of brash. The patterned input of nutrient capital in brash as a resultof organized felling was also determined. Brash containing 219,20 and 71 kg ha^–1 of N, Pand K, respectively, was systematicallydistributed at a rate of 491 ha^–1 over 66 per cent ofthe site after harvesting. The needles and small branch fractionscontained 71 per cent of the N and 80 per cent of the P andK present in the brash.     

Carbon storage and sequestration in the forests of Northern Ireland

The rate of accumulation of carbon in forests and woodlandsin Northern Ireland was estimated using the record of forestplanting since 1900 and a model that calculated the flow ofcarbon from the atmosphere to trees, litter, soil, wood productsand back to the atmosphere. It was assumed that all coniferforests had the carbon accumulation characteristics of Piceasitchensis, and upper and lower estimates of carbon storagewere calculated assuming Yield Class 16 m³ha^–1 a^–1unthinned and Yield Class 14 m³ ha^–1 a^–1 thinned.Broadleaved woodlands were assume to have the carbon accumulationcharacteristics of Fagus sylvatica, Yield Class 6 m³ha^–1a^–1. Northern Ireland currently has about 78 300 ha offorest, 83 per cent of which is coniferous, 77 per cent state-owned,mostly planted since 1945, with peak planting in 1960–1975.In 1990, conifer forests contained 3–4 MtC (trees + litter)and broadleaved wdlands contained about 0.8 MtC (trees + litter+ new forest soil). In 1990, conifer forests were sequestering0.15–0.20 MtC a^–1 and broadleaved woodlands about0.025 MtC a^–1. To maintain these sink sizes, new coniferforests need to be planted at 1500–2000 ha a^–1,and new broadleaved woodland at100–150 ha a^–1 inaddition to full restocking. Current carbon sequestration byNorthern Ireland forests represents around 6.5–8.2 percent of the total for UK forests and is greater per hectar thanin Britain because the average forest age is younger in NorthernIreland     

The tolerance of young trees to applications of clopyralid alone and in mixture with foliar-acting herbicides

The selective herbicide clopyralid is often used to controlcompeting Cirsium arvense in newly planted woodlands. When appliedas an overall spray at different dates in the spring (at 0.2kg acid equivalent (a.e.) ha^–1) to 10 tree species (Fraxinusexcelsior, Prunus avium, Quercus robur, Acer pseudoplatanus,Populus x canadensis cv. ‘Ghoy’, Pseudotsuga menziesii,Pinus nigra ssp. laricio, Larix kaempferi, Picea abies and Piceasitchensis) it did not reduce survival, and had little effecton growth. However, some species showed distortion of the youngestsprayed leaves or needles for several weeks after treatment,particularly F. excelsior, L. kaempferi and P. x canadensis.Sequential applications of clopyralid (first at 0.1 kg a.e.ha^–1 followed by 0.2 kg a.e. ha^–1 after 3 weeks),which are often required to control C. arvense, did not leadto increased leaf damage or growth reduction. Mixtures of clopyralidwith selective graminicides (cycloxydim at 0.45 kg active ingredient(a.i.) ha^–1; fluazifop-p-butyl at 0.38 kg a.i. ha^–1and propaquizafop at 0.15 kg a.i. ha^–1) did not causesignificant adverse effects on survival or growth of any species.If herbicides are required to control mixed stands of susceptibleproblem weeds such as C. arvense and grasses which are overtoppingyoung trees, these herbicide mixtures, applied as overall sprays,are less likely to cause damage to trees than attempts to usedirected applications of broad-spectrum foliar-acting herbicides.     

Sweet chestnut: silviculture, timber quality and yield in the Forest of Dean

The silviculture, performance and value of sweet chestnut (Castaneasativa Miller) are reviewed in the light of experience in theForest of Dean in Gloucestershire. The many advantages of includingthe species within broadleaved woodland include its ease ofestablishment, fast growth rate, and the high value of its timber.Veneer and first quality planking material fetch premium prices.That it is not more widely planted is mainly due to the widelyheld view that it is difficult or impossible to grow chestnutlogs that are not shaken. Shake is shown to be mainly a problemof overmature trees. Ink disease (Phytophthora sp.) is not regardedas a major limitation, especially in new plantings. Guidanceis given on the conversion of chestnut coppice to high forest.Yield tables are presented which may be applied to chestnuthigh forest of coppice origin in the Forest of Dean, and withcaution elsewhere in southern England. The data for the bettersites in the Forest of Dean indicate possible yields of up to11 m³ ha^–1 a^–1, and a dominant diameter incrementof up to 1 cm a^–1.     

The Interaction of Green Spruce Aphid and Fertilizer Applications on the Growth of Sitka Spruce

In an 11-year-old stand of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis [Bong.]Carr.) application of nitrogen fertilizers, at a rate of 10kgN ha^–1 month^–1, increased mean diameter incrementby 12 per cent, while the further addition of phosphorus, at5 kg ha^–1 month^–1, resulted in a 23 per cent increase.An attack by the green spruce aphid (Elatobium albietinum Walker)occurred during the period of fertilizer addition. The mostseverely affected trees showed a reduction in diameter growthof 50 to 56 per cent but the severity of the attack betweentrees was unrelated to the treatments applied. However, fertilizerapplication did hasten the recovery of diameter growth afterdefoliation.     

The tolerance of newly emerged broadleaved tree seedlings to the herbicides clopyralid, cycloxydim and metazachlor

In direct-seeded woodlands and nursery seed-beds, weeds canrapidly invade newly sown areas, leading to death or suppressionof tree seedlings. Hand weeding is usually expensive, and thesafe use of broad-spectrum contact herbicides is seldom possible.Hence in the work reported here, the tolerance of young treeseedlings to the potentially more selective, post-emergenceherbicides clopyralid, cycloxydim and metazachlor, was tested.Seedlings of Fraxinus excelsior L. (ash) with two to four expandedtrue leaves (2–4 ETL), Fagus sylvatica L. (beech) (2–4ETL), Acer pseudoplatanus L. (sycamore) (4–6 ETL), Prunusavium L. (cherry) (6–8 ETL) and Quercus robur L. (oak)(6–8 ETL) appeared to tolerate applications of cycloxydimat a rate of 0.45 kg a.i. ha^–1. Applications of 0.2 kga.i. ha^–1 clopyralid or 1.25 kg a.i. ha^–1 metazachloralso appeared to be generally tolerated, but did cause somesuppression of annual growth increment in Q. robur, P. avium,F. sylvatica and A. pseudoplatanus, particularly where repeatapplications were made to the earliest growth stages. Seedlingsurvival was unaffected by any herbicide treatment. Mixturesof all three herbicides were no more damaging than the sameherbicides applied separately. Therefore, depending on treespecies and growth stage, it appears that clopyralid could potentiallybe safely used to control a range of herbaceous weed species,metazachlor a variety of seedling or germinating weeds and cycloxydima range of established grass weed species, in direct sown woodlandsor nursery seed-beds, although further research is advisableto confirm crop safety.     

The effects of heavy thinning on stem quality and timber properties of silver birch (Betula pendula Roth)

A study was carried out into the effects of heavy thinning onstem quality and timber properties of silver birch (Betula pendulaRoth). Comparisons were made with lightly thinned and unthinnedbirch stands. Birch stands from the UK were also compared withsimilarly managed stands from Germany and Denmark. In general,trees from lightly thinned and unthinned stands had similarcharacteristics. Heavy thinning enhanced diameter incrementthrough greater ring width in comparison with the other treatments.The timber properties of basic density, grain angle and shrinkagecoefficients in the radial, tangential and longitudinal directions,however, were largely unaffected. More and bigger branches andgreater stem taper were found on trees from heavily thinnedstands, but these stems still met the current Finnish veneerbirch quality and dimension standards. Comparisons between birchstands, managed by heavy and light thinning, from the UK andGermany and Denmark revealed no meaningful differences in timberproperties. The results suggest that veneer dimension and qualitylogs could be produced in the UK in rotations as short as 40years on good sites if heavy thinning is adopted.     

Controlling Rhododendron spp. in the Turkish Black Sea Region

Rhododendrons (Rhododendron ponticum L. and Rhododendron luteumSweet) dominate the understories of the mesic forests of theBlack Sea Region (BSR) of Turkey. They dramatically reduce forestgrowth and regeneration and local plant diversity. This paperreports the results of a large rhododendron control experimentestablished on two different sites in the western and easternBSR of Turkey 5 years after treatments (YAT). The paper alsopresents the second-year results of a second experiment in whichthe foliar herbicides of the previous experiment were testedon rhododendron at much lower rates on a western BSR site. FiveYAT, grubbing and foliar spraying were still the best rhododendroncontrol methods in the first experiment. Cut-stump sprayingprovided an intermediate level of woody control. Hand-cuttingwas ineffective on R. ponticum and did not significantly differfrom the control treatment in rhododendron basal area 5 YAT.The performance ratings of foliar triclopyr ester and imazapyrfor woody control in both experiments were rate dependent. Athigh rates ranging between 2.6 and 5.8 kg ae ha^–1, foliarimazapyr controlled both rhododendron species significantlybetter than foliar triclopyr ester in the first experiment,suggesting enhanced imazapyr translocation to the roots. Someoff-target damage was observed in the beech overstory for imazapyrat high rates. The performance ratings of these foliar herbicideswere significantly reversed in the second experiment 2 YAT,where much lower rates were used (0.3–2.0 kg ae ha^–1)than in the first experiment. Insufficient imazapyr accumulationin rhododendron roots might account for the poor impact of thisherbicide. No beech damage was apparent from any of the herbicidesin the second experiment. The low-rate foliar triclopyr esteris recommended for effective and cost-efficient rhododendroncontrol.     

Stem volume equations and basic density for grey alder and common alder in Sweden

The objective was to determine stem volume models for grey andcommon alders and, based on the models, stand volume for naturallyregenerated grey and common alder stands was summarized. Basicdensity for grey and common alders and mean annual growth forstands was estimated. Net volume accretion data were collectedfrom 24 stands of grey alder (Alnus incana (L.) Moench) and31 stands of common alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertner) inSweden. The stands ranged in latitude from 58 to 64° N andfrom 56 to 62° N for grey and common alder, respectively.The mean age of grey and common alder stands was 41 years and48 years, respectively, the mean stand density 1726 stems ha^–1and 1078 stems ha^–1, and the mean diameter at breast height(over bark) was 20 cm and 21 cm. Stem volume equations weredeveloped for grey and common alders. The adopted model forgrey alder was based on diameter at breast height and height.For common alder, crown height was added to diameter and height.Mean standing volume (over bark) for grey and common alder standswas 428 and 374 m³ ha^–1. Mean annual growth for grey andcommon alder stands was 12.0 m³ and 8.4 m³ a^–1 ha^–1,respectively. Basic density (under bark), for grey and commonalder stems was 359 and 427 kg m^–3, respectively. Thebasic density (under bark) for the lowest twigs in the crownand in the lateral part of the crown was 415 and 421 kg m^–3for grey alder and 423 and 423 kg m^–3 for common alder.     

Overstorey density influence on the height of Picea abies regeneration in northern Sweden

The study aimed specifically at investigating if canopy opennesswas a better predictor of the height growth of Norway spruce(Picea abies (L.) Karst.) advance regeneration than overstoreybasal area or overstorey standing volume. In 1990, a field experimentwith 3 x 2 factorial design and two replications (blocks) wasestablished in an uneven-aged Norway spruce forest. Plots hada net plot area of 30 x 30 m, each with a 10-m-wide treatedbuffer zone. Three overstorey density levels retained approximately15, 40 and 70 per cent of the pre-harvest overstorey standingvolume and were allotted to the plots. Two types of thinningthat harvested smaller trees or harvested larger trees wererandomly allocated to each pair of overstorey density plots.In mid-June 2000, canopy openness was estimated from hemisphericalphotographs taken at five marked points in the centre of eachof the plots at 0.9 m from ground to the top of the ‘fish-eye’camera lens. Regression results showed that canopy opennesswas a better predictor of height increments of spruce seedlings(0.1< height < 0.5 m), saplings (0.5 height < 2.0m), and small trees (height 2.0 m, diameter at 1.3 m height< 5 cm) than with overstorey basal area (m² ha^–1) oroverstorey standing volume (m³ ha^–1). The height incrementof the spruce advance regeneration was not significantly correlatedto stand basal area or to standing volume. Overstorey basalarea in the net plots was significantly negative (P 0.05) withmean canopy openness estimates, and the r² value was 0.40. Resultsindicated that basal area was not linearly related to canopyopenness as it increased, which might explain the lack of predictivepower of retained basal area on spruce regeneration height indense stands in boreal Sweden.     

An economic evaluation of alternative genetic improvement strategies for farm woodland trees

A cost-benefit analysis (CBA), focusing on the Net Present Value(NPV) of a current genetic improvement programme for broadleavedtrees was performed using Monte Carlo simulation, with an add-onsoftware package (‘@RISK’) specifically designedto take account of the uncertainty associated with long-termprojects. The CBA was undertaken by evaluating the total costof achieving a given estimated genetic gain via each of thebreeding strategies considered. The estimated values of geneticgain were then expressed in terms of the increased value oftimber output. Cash flows were based on current estimated treeestablishment costs and anticipated productivity of the fourtree species included in the programme (ash, Fraxinus excelsior;sycamore, Acer pseudoplatanus; wild cherry, Prunus avium; andsweet chestnut, Castanea sativa), when grown primarily for atimber crop. The results of the NPV analysis indicated thattree improvement could be cost-effective for small genetic gains,but that current breeding strategies differed markedly in theircost-effectiveness. Improvement scenarios based on conventionalselection and testing techniques, such as simple mass selectionand recurrent selection (seed orchards), were found to be themost cost-effective at a discount rate of 6 per cent. In contrast,tree improvement scenarios based on clonal techniques consistentlyranked lowest, despite the much higher genetic gains achieved.The use of clonal techniques was found to be particularly hardto justify with broadleaved tree species of relatively low timbervalue. Overall, with the current state of broadleaved timbermarkets in the UK, and the current areas being planted, investmentin basic genetic improvement of high-value timber species appearsfinancially worth while. The estimated direct additional financialbenefit to growers, if new planting is undertaken with improvedstock as opposed to unimproved stock, is estimated to rangefrom £38 ha^–1 with Simple Mass Selection to £100ha^–1 with Simple Recurrent Selection.     

Early growth of planted yellow and paper birch and European birches in Vermont

Twelve native yellow birch (Betula alleghanensis Britt.) and paper birch (B. papyrifera Marsh.) sources and 9 European white birch (B. pendula Roth.) sources were planted on three sites in Vermont. Significant differences in growth were found among sources within two of the sites, and differences between sites were significant. Birch from Latvia appeard to be the best source on favorable sites attaining a total height of 5.18m, a total 6-year height increment of 4.29 m, and good stem form. Birches from Finland also showed good growth potential. Six yellow birch seed sources grew well on the best site and yellow birch ranks best there as a species group. European white birches do best as a group on the poor site. Silver birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) from Scotland grew poorest of the European birches.     

Above-Ground Biomass of Mountain Beech (Nothofagus solandri (Hook.f.) Oerst. var. cliffortioides (Hook.f.) Poole) in Different Stand Types Near Timberline in New Zealand

In the alpine timberline ecotone at 1350 m in the CraigieburnRange, New Zealand, four distinct mountain beech stand types(a pole, a coppice, a high forest and a shrublike stand) wereanalysed for stand biomass and leaf area by means of allomet-ricregressions based on stem diameter. Differences between stand types in terms of age, structure,biomass and leaf area are interpreted as development stagesafter stand breakdowns due to external impacts. Vegetative reproduction,mainly coppicing, plays an important part in stand regeneration. The young pole stand had 177 t ha^–1, the coppice stand272 t ha^–1, and the mature high forest stand 323 t ha^–1aboveground dry weight. A low mountain beech shrub stand withgnarled, windshaped dwarf trees had only 135 t ha^–1. Foliageaccounted for only 3–5% in all stands, the leaf area indexwas also low, at 3.0 in the shrub stand and 3.7–7.4 inthe forest stands. The low foliage proportion is consideredto be a response to the harsh environment.     

Litter Production in Western Washington Douglas-Fir Stands

Litter production by Douglas-fir stands ranging in age from22 years old to 160 years old, is discussed. Typical leaf litterproduction was 2100 kg ha^–1 yr^–1 while total litterwas 2500 kg ha^–1 yr^–1. Annual fall of leaf litterincreases up to about 40 years of age and then becomes fairlyconstant while total litter continues to increase because ofwood production, although this increase may be quite irregular.Average nutrient returns to the forest floor are 21, 3, 7, 32,4, and 7 kg ha^–1 yr^–1 for N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and Mnrespectively.     

The effect of afforestation on soil carbon dioxide emissions in blanket peatland in Ireland

We studied the effect of afforestation on soil CO₂ emissionsin blanket peat. The study sites were as follows: two undrainedblanket peatland sites, six sites which had been drained andafforested 3, 19, 23, 27, 33 and 39 years previously, and twoforest sites which were clearfelled in summer 1996. Soil CO₂emissions were measured using the soda-lime method during 13sampling campaigns throughout 1997. Each campaign consistedof two consecutive 24-h measurements. Comparison of the averageannual CO₂ emission revealed no clear pattern in relation tosoil type and suggests that afforestation does not always leadto an increase in soil CO₂ emissions. In the most recently forestedsite, CO₂ emissions were 1.7 t C ha^–1 a^–1 and drainagehad failed to lower the water-table sufficiently to cause alarge increase in CO₂ emissions. In the 19-, 23-, 27- and 33-year-oldsites soil CO₂ emissions were 1.0–1.4 t C ha^–1 a^–1and were similar to, or lower than, levels in the undrainedsites. In the 39-year-old site average CO₂ emissions were 2.6t C ha^–1 a^–1. In the clearfelled sites CO₂ emissionswere lower at between 1.4 and 1.6 t C ha^–1 a^–1.Root respiration appears to account for a large proportion ofCO₂ emissions, and blanket peat, despite drainage, is resistantto decay. It is concluded that losses of soil C are compensatedby C uptake by the trees.     

Estimating net primary productivity of Chinese pine forests based on forest inventory data

Forest inventory data (FID) include forest resources informationat large spatial scale and long temporal scale. They are importantdata sources for estimating forest net primary productivity(NPP) and carbon budget at landscape and regional scales. Inthis study, more than 100 datasets of biomass, volume, NPP andstand age for Chinese pine forests (Pinus tabulaeformis) fromthe literature were synthesized to develop regression equationsbetween biomass and volume, and between NPP and biomass as wellas stand age. Using these regression equations and the fourthFID surveyed by the Forestry Ministry China from 1989 to 1993,NPP values of Chinese pine forests were estimated. The meanNPP of Chinese pine forests was 4.35 Mg ha^–1 yr^–1.NPP varied widely among provinces, ranging from 1.5 (Neimenggu)to 13.73 Mg ha^–1 yr^–1 (Guizhou). Total NPP of Chinesepine was 10.87 Tg yr^–1 (1 Tg = 10¹² g). NPP values ofChinese pine forests were not distributed evenly across differentprovinces in China. This study may be useful not only for estimatingforest carbon of other forest types but also for evaluatingterrestrial carbon balance at regional and global levels.