Extraction of chlorophyll a from biological soil crusts: A comparison of solvents for spectrophotometric determination

We tested the efficacy of four different commonly used solvents (acetone, ethanol, dimethyl sulfoxide, methanol) for the extraction of chla from biological soil crusts of three different successional stages (dark, intermediate, and light). Our results indicate that a double extraction technique is necessary in order to achieve chla recovery in the range of 76-87 percent. For all crust types, ethanol and dimethyl sulfoxide extracted the greatest amount of chla using a two-extraction efficiency calculation.     

Effects of biological soil crusts on soil nematode communities following dune stabilization in the Tengger Desert,Northern China

Biological soil crusts (BSCs) play an important role in the dune fixation and maintaining soil biota in arid desert systems. Free-living soil nematode communities could be used as significant bioindicators to reflect soil recover regime after sand burial. However, the relationship between BSCs and nematodes is rarely known. To examine the effects of BSCs on soil nematodes, 72 soil samples under cyanobacteria–lichen and moss crusts were collected to analyse nematode communities in the different aged vegetated areas at the southeastern edge of the Tengger Desert. Our results showed the colonization and development of BSCs significantly enhanced nematode diversity. Nematode abundances, generic richness, H′, MI, EI and SI were greater under crusts than those under noncrust. In particular, nematode abundances, generic richness, H′, MI, EI and SI were positively correlated with crust ages. The differences in nematode communities were also dependent upon crust types. Nematode abundances and generic richness under moss crusts were higher than those under cyanobacteria–lichen crusts. This can be contributed to the present and succession of BSCs that increased thickness of topsoil after dunes have been stabilized, namely, creating suitable habitats and providing an essential food source for nematodes.     

Pyrosequencing Reveals Significant Changes in Microbial Communities Along the Ecological Succession of Biological Soil Crusts in the Tengger Desert of China

Biological soil crusts (BSCs) have important ecological functions in arid and semiarid lands, but they remain poorly understood in terms of the changes in microbial communities during BSC succession under in situ field conditions. Here, 454 pyrosequencing was used to assess the microbial community composition of four BSC types in the Tengger Desert of China: alga, lichen (cyanolichen and green alga-lichen), and moss crusts, representing early, middle, and final successional stages of BSCs, respectively. The results showed the highest diversity of microbial communities inhabiting lichen crusts, whereas the lowest diversity was observed in moss crusts. Five phyla, Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Cyanobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Acidobacteria, accounted for about 72% to 87% of total prokaryotic sequences in different BSCs. The most abundant eukaryotic microorganism was Ascomycota, accounting for 47% to 93% of the total eukaryotic sequences. Along the succession of BSCs, the abundance of photoautotrophic Cyanobacteria, Chlorophyta, and Bacillariophyta declined, and that of heterotrophic microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi increased. Statistical analysis showed clear divergency of microbial taxa at the class level among the different successional stages of BSCs. The clustering results at class level showed that the moss crusts were the farthest from the rest in prokaryotic composition; the alga crusts were the most different in terms of eukaryotic microorganisms and the two kinds of lichen crusts were relatively closer in both compositions. Ordination analysis showed that the main variations of community structure among BSCs could be explained best by the abundance of Cyanobacteria and Ascomycota and by physiochemical properties of BSCs, including mechanical composition, moisture, and electrical conductivity. In conclusion, our results indicate that Cyanobacteria and Ascomycota likely play an important role in the evolution of BSC structure and functions and highlight the importance of environmental factors in shaping microbial community structures of BSCs in the Tengger Desert of China.     

Biological soil crust development affects physicochemical characteristics of soil surface in semiarid ecosystems

Water and nutrients are scarce resources in arid and semiarid ecosystems. In these regions, biological soil crusts (BSCs) occupy a large part of the soil surface in the open spaces surrounding patches of vegetation. BSCs affect physicochemical soil properties, such as aggregate stability, water retention, organic carbon (OC) and nitrogen (N) content, associated with primary ecosystem processes like water availability and soil fertility. However, the way BSCs modify soil surface and subsurface properties greatly depends on the type of BSC. We hypothesised that physicochemical properties of soil crusts and of their underlying soils would improve with crust development stage. Physicochemical properties of various types of soil crusts (physical crusts and several BSC development stages) and of the underlying soil (soil layers 0–1 cm and 1–5 cm underneath the crusts) in two semiarid areas in SE Spain were analysed. The properties that differed significantly depending on crust development stage were aggregate stability, water content (WC) (at −33 kPa and −1500 kPa), OC and N content. Aggregate stability was higher under well-developed BSCs (cyanobacterial, lichen and moss crusts) than under physical crusts or incipient BSCs. WC, OC and N content significantly increased in the crust and its underlying soil with crust development, especially in the first centimetre of soil underneath the crust. Our results highlight the significant role of BSCs in water availability, soil stability and soil fertility in semiarid areas.     

Hydrolase enzyme activities in a successional gradient of biological soil crusts in arid and semi-arid zones

In arid and semi-arid regions, pioneer organisms form complex communities that penetrate the upper millimetres of the bare substrate, creating biological soil crusts (BSC). These thin crusts play a vital role in whole ecosystem functioning because they enrich bare surfaces with organic matter, initiate biogeochemical cycling of elements, modify hydrological cycles, etc., thus enabling the ground to be colonized by vascular plants. Various hydrolase enzymes involved in the carbon (cellulase, β-glucosidase and invertase activities), nitrogen (casein-protease and BAA-protease activities) and phosphorus (alkaline phosphomonoesterase activity) cycles were studied at three levels (crust, middle and deep layers) of three types of BSCs from the Tabernas Desert (SE Spain), representing an ecological gradient ranging from crusts predominated by cyanobacteria to crusts predominated by lichens (Diploschistes diacapsis, Lepraria crassissima). All enzyme activities were higher in all layers of all BSCs than in the bare substrate. The enzymes that hydrolyze low molecular weight substrates were more active than those that hydrolyze high molecular weight substrates (cellulase, casein-protease), highlighting the pioneering characteristics of the BSCs. The hydrolytic capacity developed in parallel to that of ecological succession, and the BSCs in which enzyme activity was highest were those under L. crassissima. The enzyme activity per unit of total organic C was extremely high; the highest values occurred in the BSCs formed by cyanobacteria and the lowest in those formed by lichens, which indicates the fundamental role that the primary colonizers (cyanobacteria) play in enriching the geological substrate with enzymes that enable degradation of organic remains and the establishment of more developed BSCs. The results of the study combine information on different enzyme activities and provide a clear vision of how biogeochemical cycles are established in BSCs, thus confirming the usefulness of enzyme assays as key tools for examining the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem function in biological soil crusts.     

Effects of biological soil crusts on soil enzyme activities in revegetated areas of the Tengger Desert,China

Biological soil crusts (BSCs) cover up to 70% of the sparsely-vegetated areas in arid and semiarid regions throughout the world and play a vital role in dune stabilization in desert ecosystems. Soil enzyme activities could be used as significant bioindicators of soil recovery after sand burial. However, little is known about the relationship between BSCs and soil enzyme activities. The objective of this study was to determine whether BSCs could affect soil enzyme activities in revegetated areas of the Tengger Desert. The results showed that BSCs significantly promoted the activities of soil urease, invertase, catalase and dehydrogenase. The effects also varied with crust type and the elapsed time since sand dune stabilization. All the soil enzyme activities tested in this study were greater under moss crusts than under cyanobacteria–lichen crusts. The elapsed time since sand dune stabilization correlated positively with the four enzyme activities. The enzyme activities varied with soil depth and season, regardless of crust type. Cyanobacteria–lichen and moss crusts significantly enhanced all test enzyme activities in the 0–20 cm soil layer, but negatively correlated with soil depth. All four enzyme activities were greater in the summer and autumn than in spring and winter due to the vigorous growth of the crusts. Our study demonstrated that the colonization and development of BSCs could improve soil quality and promote soil recovery in degraded areas of the Tengger Desert.     

Spatial distribution and physiology of biological soil crusts from semi-arid central Spain are related to soil chemistry and shrub cover

Despite the critical role of biological soil crusts (BSCs) in arid and semi-arid ecosystem function, few studies are found concerning the most important environmental variables affecting their distribution and physiology. This study seeks to determine soil and microenvironmental factors affecting the spatial distribution and pigment production of BSC-forming lichens and mosses in open patches of a semi-arid Mediterranean kermes oak thicket. We measured late-successional BSC cover, shrub cover, distance to nearest kermes oak (to test for effects of kermes oak thicket microenvironment on BSC), and pigment concentration of one lichen (Cladonia foliacea) and one moss (Pleurochaete squarrosa) species in the Nature Reserve El Regajal-Mar de Ontígola (Central Spain). At the macroscale (>0.5 m), results showed that BSC distribution and pigments were tightly coupled to a suite of soil properties, in particular soil pH, Fe, and Ca. Specifically, soil pH had a positive relationship with the cover of five individual BSC-forming lichen species and was negatively related to pigment production in C. foliacea. When pH was excluded from the analysis, Ca appeared as the main soil variable and was correlated with total BSC cover and total lichen cover. The micronutrient Fe had a significant positive relationship with the concentration of eight pigments in P. squarrosa and was also coupled with the cover of two BSC-forming lichens. Manganese, previously proposed as a key limiting micronutrient for BSCs, affected lichen diversity in a negative way. At the microscale (∼0.5 m), kermes oak microenvironment, shrub cover, and moss cover were determinants of BSC distribution, and total lichen and total BSC cover were overrepresented on N and E-facing shrub microsites. Our findings suggest that soil chemical variability and microsite diversity created by neighbouring vegetation affect BSC distribution in complex and essential ways and that studies aiming to explore BSC-environment relationships should be conducted at various spatial scales. Studies based on species- or group-specific responses are, thus, inadequate to unveil the main factors determining the distribution of the diverse organisms that constitute BSCs and/or to propose potential tools aiming to restore BSC in arid and semiarid ecosystems.     

铜尾矿生物结皮的生物固氮及其影响因素研究

在铜尾矿生态系统自然恢复过程中,生物结皮广泛存在并成为尾矿生态系统演替早期的重要阶段。本文采用乙炔原位还原法对藻类结皮、藻藓混合结皮和藓类结皮的生物固氮特征进行了系统研究。结果表明:(1)生物结皮显著提高了铜尾矿总氮含量,同时降低了铜的含量。(2)不同类型生物结皮的固氮能力差别较大,其中藻藓混合结皮的生物固氮量最高,在N 4.36～30.39 kg hm2 a–1之间;藻类结皮和藓类结皮的固氮量分别为N 1.32～8.78、0～16.34 kg hm2 a–1。(3)生物固氮能力随季节变化明显,夏季的生物固氮量最高,春季次之,秋冬季节相对较低。(4)铜尾矿基质pH、NH4+-N和水溶性有机碳(WSOC)等与生物固氮量呈显著正相关(p<0.05),而土壤容重、NO3--N和总铜等与生物固氮量呈显著负相关(p<0.05)。     

Carbon utilization, microbial biomass, and respiration in biological soil crusts in the Negev Desert

Biological soil crusts (BSCs) and the soils directly below crusts (SDBCs) (0–5 mm) were collected in the Negev Desert (Israel) during the wet and dry seasons of 2007 and 2008, gently separated, and microbial basal respiration, microbial biomass carbon (C_mic), carbon (C) source utilization rates, and catabolic diversity were analyzed using MicroResp^TM plates. The seasonal-change patterns of these parameters were similar to those of soil organic C (C_org) in the BSCs, i.e., increases were observed during the dry seasons relative to the wet seasons. Few seasonal variations in qCO₂ and C_mic/C_org in the BSCs indicated that the increases in crustal organism basal respiration and C source utilization rates can be attributed to microbial propagation as a result of the increases in available C during the dry seasons. High frequency of rain events, with precipitation higher than 0.1 mm during spring, can enable crustal organisms to maintain photosynthetic activity and can facilitate microbial propagation and C_org accumulation in the BSCs. The seasonal dynamics of the four biotic parameters in the SDBCs were the opposite of those of the BSCs, and C source utilization rates and catabolic diversity were higher than in the BSCs during the wet seasons. Downward migration of exopolysaccharides, crustal organism cell contents, and intracellular solutes with water infiltration can increase C and nutrient availability and enhance microbial catabolic activities and propagation in the SDBCs.     

毛乌素沙地人为干扰苔藓结皮的土壤水分和风蚀效应

[目的]为了探讨在毛乌素沙地人为干扰生物结皮的必要性与可行性,并为该区生物结皮的高效利用提供实验依据。[方法]在毛乌素沙地东南缘设置裸沙、苔藓结皮、干扰苔藓结皮、沙蒿、沙蒿+苔藓结皮以及沙蒿+干扰苔藓结皮6个处理小区,通过动态监测各小区土壤水分及风蚀变化过程,分析人为干扰苔藓结皮对土壤水分及风蚀过程的影响。[结果](1)沙地苔藓结皮能够显著提高浅层土壤含水量,降低深层土壤含水量。(2)人为干扰苔藓结皮会引起浅层土壤含水量的降低和降雨入渗深度的增加。(3)与裸沙对照相比,几种处理的减蚀效率大小顺序为:沙蒿+苔藓结皮(97.01%)沙蒿+干扰苔藓结皮(90.87%)苔藓结皮(89.63%)干扰苔藓结皮(69.50%)沙蒿(64.62%)。[结论]植被覆盖度较高时,对苔藓结皮进行适当破坏,能够在不加剧土壤风蚀的前提下,一定程度上改善土壤水分状况。而在无植被或低植被覆盖的地块,要禁止对苔藓结皮的干扰破坏。     

Assessing the Potential of Organic Solvents on Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon Extraction from Diesel-Contaminated Soils

The total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) extraction potential of organic solvents including dichloromethane (DCM), pentane, hexane, methanol, ethanol, propanol, and acetone was investigated along with the effect of water content in solvents for their efficiency of extraction. The extent of TPH extraction was analyzed using various extraction schemes (i.e., solvent/solid ratio, treatment time, extraction method, solvent/water ratio) to better understand the physical and chemical factors controlling TPH release from contaminated soils. More TPH was extracted with increasing solvent/solid ratio and increasing time. The extent of TPH extracted also varied depending on the extraction method, solvent type, and solvent/water ratio, but was highest when using the total extraction method and 100% DCM. However, the efficiency of TPH extraction decreased dramatically with the increase in the water content in organic solvents. The results also showed that TPH extraction using DCM was the best option for achieving cost-effective, eco-friendly outcomes along with remediation goals. DCM used in solvent extraction to remediate diesel-contaminated soils showed low toxicity, low cost, high recycling potential, and high efficiency compared to the other solvents tested in this study.     

Ants mediate soil water in arid desert ecosystems: Mitigating rainfall interception induced by biological soil crusts?

As vital components of desert systems, the roles of ants in arid ecological processes have been well documented, while little attention has been given to their effects on soil water. We conducted a six-year investigation in sand dune systems stabilized via revegetation, to explore the hydrological role of ants through comparing the influence of ant nests on rainfall infiltration in different-aged revegetated dunes. The presence of ant nests markedly enhanced infiltration due to weakening the rainfall interception by biological soil crusts (BSCs) in revegetated dunes. The distribution of ant nest was denser in older revegetated areas, due to better developed BSCs of later successional stages, compared to younger revegetated areas. Ants prefer later to early successional BSCs because the later lichen–moss dominated crusts were thicker and their surface was more stable than the early cyanobacteria dominated crusts. Conversely, the crustal rainfall interception was positively correlated with BSC thickness. These findings suggest that the occurrence of ant nests in older revegetated areas benefited to the planted shrubs with deeper root systems and maintain a relative constant cover of shrubs in artificial sand-binding vegetation following an increase in infiltration to deeper soil layers.     

Discriminating soil crust type,development stage and degree of disturbance in semiarid environments from their spectral characteristics

Biological soil crusts (BSCs) are increasingly recognized as common features in arid and semiarid ecosystems and play an important role in the hydrological and ecological functioning of these ecosystems. However, BSCs are very vulnerable to, in particular, human disturbance. This results in a complex spatial pattern of BSCs in various stages of development. Such patterns, to a large extent, determine runoff and erosion processes in arid and semiarid ecosystems. In recent years, visible and near infrared (Vis‐NIR) diffuse reflectance spectroscopy has been used for large‐scale mapping of the distribution of BSCs. Our goals were (i) to demonstrate the efficiency of Vis‐NIR spectroscopy in discriminating vegetation, physical soil crusts, various developmental stages of BSCs, and various types of disturbance on BSCs and (ii) to develop a classification system for these types of ground cover based on Vis‐NIR spectroscopy. Spectral measurements were taken of vegetation, physical crusts and various types of BSCs prior to, and following, trampling or removal with a scraper in two semiarid areas in SE Spain. The main spectral differences were: (i) absorption by water at about 1450 nm, more intense in the spectra of vegetation than in those of physical crusts or BSCs, (ii) absorption features at about 500 and 680 nm for the BSCs, which were absent or very weak for physical crusts, (iii) a shallower slope between about 750 and 980 nm for physical crusts and early‐successional BSCs than for later‐successional BSCs and (iv) a steeper slope between about 680 and 750 nm for the most developed BSCs. A partial least squares regression‐linear discriminant analysis of the spectral data resulted in a reliable classification (Kappa coefficients over 0.90) of the various types of ground cover and types of BSC disturbance. The distinctive spectral features of vegetation, physical crusts and the various developmental stages of BSCs were used to develop a classification system. This will be a promising tool for mapping BSCs with hyperspectral remote sensing.     

Localization of bacteria in lichens from Alpine soil crusts by fluorescence in situ hybridization

Lichens are prominent components of many biological soil crusts. Owing to their persistence, lichen thalli create microhabitats for other microbes. Here, the structure of bacterial communities at the thallus–soil interface in lichen soil crusts was studied by using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and 3D image reconstruction. Terricolous lichen thalli above the tree-line in open habitats of the Austrian Alps were sampled. We selected six lichen species associated with green algal photobionts: Arthrorhaphis citrinella, Baeomyces placophyllus, B. rufus, Icmadophila ericetorum, Psora decipiens and Trapeliopsis granulosa. Alphaproteobacteria and Acidobacteria are predominant in these soil crust lichens, where the latter are frequently present in the lower part of lichen thalli and in the hypothallosphere. In the inconspicuous thallus structures of Arthrorhaphis citrinella, Baeomyces rufus, Icmadophila ericetorum and Trapeliopsis granulosa we observed association of bacteria with algal cells in soil particles and on the outer surface of the mycobiont–photobiont aggregates. We found bacterial cells intermixed with photobiont cells in the lower part of the lichen thalli and as small colonies on the surface of the squamules of Baeomyces placophyllus and Psora decipiens. Moreover, technical issues of performing FISH and confocal microscopy with biological soil crusts are discussed.     

Biological crusts as a model system for examining the biodiversity-ecosystem function relationship in soils

Despite that soils may be the greatest repository of biodiversity on Earth, and that most terrestrial ecosystem functions occur in the soil, research on the role of soil biodiversity in ecosystem function has lagged behind corresponding research on aboveground organisms. Soil organisms pose special problems to biodiversity-function research, including the fact that we usually do not know their identity nor what they do in soil ecosystems, cannot easily estimate their biodiversity, and cannot culture the majority of the organisms for use in manipulative experiments. We propose here that biological soil crusts (BSCs) of deserts and many other ecosystems may serve as a useful model system for diversity-function research because the species concept is relatively well-defined within BSC organisms, their functional attributes are relatively well-known, and estimation and manipulation of biodiversity in experiments are feasible, at least within some groups of BSC biota. In spite of these features, there is a pronounced lack of research on biodiversity-function using these organisms. At least two complementary approaches are possible: experiments using artificially-constructed BSCs, and observational studies which statistically control for the effects of other factors which are likely to covary with biodiversity. We applied the latter to four observational datasets collected at multiple spatial scales in Spain and the United States using structural equation models or path analysis using ecosystem function indicators relating to hydrology, trapping and retention of soil resources, and nutrient cycling. We found that, even when total BSC abundance and key environmental gradients are controlled for, direct and approximately linear relationships between species richness and/or evenness and indicators of ecosystem functioning were common. Such relationships appear to vary independently of region or spatial scale, but their strength seems to differ in every dataset. Functional group richness did not seem to adequately capture biodiversity-function relationships, suggesting that bryophyte and lichen components of BSC may exhibit low redundancy. More research employing the multi-trophic, multi-functional, and manipulable BSC system may enable more rapid understanding of the consequences of biodiversity loss in soils, and help enable a biodiversity-function theory that is pertinent to the numerous ecosystem services provided by soil organisms.     

Optimization of extraction conditions for active components in Hypericum perforatum using response surface methodology

Optimal conditions for extraction of Hypericum perforatum were determined using response surface methodology. A 3 x 4 x 4 full factorial design representing three extraction temperatures, four extraction times, and four solvent concentrations was executed. The overall extraction efficiency was defined by comparing either the total extractable material weight or the individual component peak area to the peak area of luteolin as internal standard. Of the tested variables, the extraction temperature most significantly affected extraction efficiency. Higher temperatures gave better extraction efficiencies, but high temperature also caused decomposition of hypericin. Within the test range, responses for most variables had local maxima. Optimum ranges of time and concentration for individual variables were overlaid. Considering all variables, optimum ranges for extraction time and extraction solvent concentration (percent ethanol in acetone) were 5.0-6.7 h and 44-74% at 23 degrees C, 5.4-6.9 h and 45-72% at 40 degrees C, and 5.3-5.9 h and 44-69% ethanol in acetone at 55 degrees C, respectively.     

Biological and microbial activity in biological soil crusts from the Tabernas desert,a sub-arid zone in SE Spain

The ecology and functional role of biological soil crusts (BSCs) in arid and semi-arid zones have been extremely well studied. However, little is known about the biochemical properties related to the number and activity of the microbiota that form the crusts, even though information about these properties is very important for understanding many of the processes that affect the formations. In this study, several properties related to the activity and number of microorganisms (biomass-C, basal respiration, dehydrogenase activity and nitrogen mineralization potential) were determined at different depths (crusts, 0–0.5 cm; middle, 0.5–3 cm and deep, 3–5 cm layers) in two types of crusts (predominated by cyanobacteria and by lichens) in the Tabernas desert (Almeria, SE Spain). The absolute values of the above-mentioned properties and the values expressed relative to the total organic carbon (TOC) content were both much higher in the crust layers than in the surface horizons of soils under Mediterranean or Atlantic climates. A large part of the TOC in the BSCs was contained in the microbiota and another large part was readily metabolized during incubation of the crusts for 10 days at 25 °C. The net nitrogen mineralization rate was also high, and ammonification predominated in the crust layers, whereas nitrification predominated in the middle and deep layers. In all types of BSCs, the microbiota colonized the deep layers, although with greater intensity in the lichen-dominated BSCs than in the cyanobacterial BSCs. The results also indicate that hydrolytic enzymes are not stabilized on soil colloids and their activity depends only on the active microbiota.     

Effects of drought and salt stresses on man-made cyanobacterial crusts

As a primary successional stage of biological soil crusts (BSCs), cyanobacterial crusts form firstly in the arid and semiarid areas. At the same time, they suffer many stress conditions, such as drought, salt, etc. In this study, we constructed man-made cyanobacterial crusts with Microcoleus vaginatus Gom. and comparatively studied the effects of drought and salt stresses on the crusts. The results showed that crust growth and photosynthetic activity was significantly inhibited by the stress conditions (P < 0.05), and inhibitory effect increased with the increasing stress intensity and treated time. Compared with salt stress, drought completely stopped crust metabolic activity, so the crust biomass was conserved at a higher level, which meant that drought itself might provide the crusts some protection, especially when the crusts simultaneously suffered drought and salt stresses. That is very important for the survival of crusts in the high-salt areas. In addition, to some extent the crusts could adapt to the stress conditions through metabolic adjustment. In our experiment, we found the accumulation of exopolysaccharides (EPS) increased under stress conditions within a certain threshold.     

人工生物土壤结皮特性及其集雨潜力的研究

为探讨在太行山半干旱区利用人工土壤生物结皮进行集雨的潜力和可行性,以自然生长的生物土壤结皮为种子,通过培育建立人工土壤生物结皮和生物结皮集雨,对人工土壤生物结皮建成后土壤物理性状、渗透率的变化及人工生物结皮集雨面的集流效率进行了研究。结果表明,人工土壤生物结皮与自然生长的生物结皮一样,可显著改变土壤的颗粒组成,使0~1 cm表层土壤的小颗粒物质含量增加、大颗粒物质减少,但对0~5 cm的土壤容重影响不显著。对土壤入渗速率的测定结果表明,人工培育的土壤生物结皮具有降低入渗速率的作用,与自然土壤相比,生物结皮的土壤初始入渗速率和稳定入渗速率分别下降59.1%和44.4%,达到稳定入渗的加水量也减少50.0%。人工营建的生物结皮集雨面的平均集雨效率达60.86%,与自然土面相比,提高23.0%。对集雨面效益分析表明,生物结皮集雨面不仅具有较高的集雨效果,且使用年限较长,并具有明显的减少地表径流沉积物含量,提高土壤抗蚀性的作用。综上结果可以看出,人工土壤生物结皮是一种极具潜力的绿色环保型集雨材料。     

Extractability and Subsequent Biodegradation of PAHs from Contaminated Soil

The biodegradation of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) has been well documented; however, the biodegradation of PAHs in contaminated soil has proved to be problematic. Sorption of PAHs to soil over time can significantly decrease their availability for extraction much less than for biodegradation. In this study the ability of various organic solvents to extract PAHs from coal tar-contaminated soil obtained from former manufactured gas plant (MGP) sites was investigated. Solvents investigated included acetone/hexane, dichloromethane, ethanol, methanol, toluene, and water. The extraction of MGP soils with solvents was investigated using soxhlet extraction, multiple soxhlet extractions, sonication, and brief agitation at ambient temperature with a range of solvent concentrations. Of particular interest was the documentation of the recalcitrance of PAHs in weathered MGP soils to extraction and to bioremediation, as well as to demonstrate the ease with which PAHs extracted from these soils can be biodegraded. The efficiency of extraction of PAHs from MGP soils was found to be more dependent upon the choice of solvent. The environmentally-benign solvent ethanol, was shown to be equal to if not better than acetone/hexane (the EPA recommended solvent) for the extraction of PAHs from MGP soils, brief contact/agitation times (minutes) using small quantities of ethanol (2 volumes or less) can achieve nearly quantitative extraction of PAHs from MGP soils. Moreover aqueous slurries of an MGP soils experienced less than 10% biodegradation of PAHs in 14 days while in the same period about 95% biodegradation was acieved using PAHs extracted from this soil by ethanol and subsequently added to aqueous bacterial suspensions.