Does forest continuity matter in conservation? - A study of epiphytic lichens and bryophytes in beech forests of southern Sweden

The effects of forest continuity at local scale for red-listed and indicator species of epiphytic lichens and bryophytes were investigated in 150 Fagus sylvatica stands in southern Sweden. Stands having forest continuity (n = 106) had continuous forest cover more than 350 years, whereas stands lacking continuity (n = 44) had forest cover less than 160 years. Forest continuity was identified by comparing a sequence of historical maps with a modern survey of beech forests. In the field woody beech substrates were searched for the epiphytes of interest. A number of environmental and spatial variables were inventoried and compiled for each stand. In all 64 species (51 lichens, 13 bryophytes) were found in the stands having continuity, and 21 (14 lichens, 7 bryophytes) in the stands lacking continuity. Controlling for the different number of surveyed stands, stands having continuity had significantly more species of lichens, but not of bryophytes. In the stands lacking continuity we did not find lichens associated with the very late succession stage. The quantity of substrates, stand age and forest continuity were the three most important factors explaining species richness as well as composition of studied epiphytes. The effect of continuity was probably due to a combination of a higher substrate quality, mainly old beeches, and a longer time available for colonization. Also, we found strong positive correlations between number of indicator and red-listed epiphyte species. In short-term conservation old stands having continuity, containing suitable substrates and indicator species are target areas.     

Do boundaries of soil animal and plant communities coincide? A case study of a Mediterranean forest in Russia

We studied the relationship between plant and soil animal communities by geostatistical analysis in a piedmont forest close to Novorossiysk (Southern Russia). Vegetation on the slope of a hill was an oak-ash-hornbeam forest, while the vegetation on the foot of the hill was a maple-ash-hornbeam forest. Two plots were studied each including both slope and foot habitats. On every plot samples collected formed a grid of 10 × 5 units with a 5 m distance between them. Soil macroinvertebrates were hand-sorted from the samples, and several soil parameters (soil, pebble, and litter mass, soil moisture) were measured.The analysis did not reveal coincidence between the boundaries of plant and soil animal communities on the bend of the hill. Soil animal communities of the plots were dominated by woodlice, diplopods, and insect larvae, reaching an abundance of 680–990 individuals m⁻² throughout the plots. Number of taxonomic groups per sample and overall animal abundance in the bend were the highest in both plots, whilst these parameters on the slope were the lowest. Variograms and maps of spatial distribution indicated that the boundary between soil animal communities was situated further up on the slope than the vegetation boundary. The size of the animal community was smaller than the size of plots sampled, what probably explained the lack of coincidence between the boundaries. There was a significant correlation between distribution of litter mass and parameters of soil animal communities, which was modulated by depth of soil layer and soil moisture. Soil parameters were more important for explaining boundaries between soil animal communities than plant communities in the forest considered.     

Is overweight a risk factor for wheezing in pre-school children? A study in 14 Brazilian communities

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between overweight and wheezing in pre-school children in 14 small Brazilian communities. METHODS: Cross-sectional epidemiological study, conducted between 2001 and 2002. A sample of 3453 children under 5 years of age was taken from nine communities in the state of Bahia and five in the state of S?o Paulo. Data on housing, family and children were obtained by applying structured questionnaires in loco. Weight and height for each child were also measured. The association between wheezing and overweight was assessed by unconditional logistic multivariate regression models. RESULTS: Overweight children had a greater frequency of wheezing and an odds ratio of 2.57 (95% confidence interval 1.51-4.37) was estimated after controlling for several potential confounding variables. The magnitude of the risk was not affected by several different model specifications. CONCLUSION: Excess weight is associated with increased risk for wheezing in this population of children below 5 years of age.     

Reproductive success of the black-backed woodpecker (Picoides arcticus) in burned boreal forests: Are burns source habitats?

The black-backed woodpecker (Picoides arcticus) is considered a fire specialist throughout its breeding range. Given its high abundance in recent burns, it has been hypothesized that post-fire forests are source habitats for this species. We conducted a 3-year post-fire study to evaluate the temporal occupancy and reproductive success of black-backed woodpeckers in high-severity burned black spruce forests of central Quebec, Canada. We examined how reproductive success varied temporally and spatially within a burned landscape and investigated the potential source or sink status of this woodpecker population over time. Woodpecker nest density was high in the year after fire but declined significantly over the 3-year period. Based on 106 nests, nest success declined from 84% the first year after fire to 73% and 25%, respectively, for the second and third years after fire. Nest density and reproductive success were higher in areas with high proportions of burned mature forests than in areas dominated by burned young forests. Reproductive success was also higher in proximity to unburned forests. Comparison of annual productivity with a range of survival estimates indicated that these burned forests likely functioned as source habitats for the first 2 years following fire, although this status varied as a function of pre-fire forest age. Our results suggest that post-fire forests may contribute significantly to population levels in fire-prone ecosystems. Forest management practices that reduce the amount of mature and over-mature forests can affect the quality of post-fire habitats important to the black-backed woodpecker and other fire-associated species.     

Do the impacts of alien invasive plants differ from expansive native ones? An experimental study on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi communities

No studies have compared so far the effects of alien invasive and expansive native (widespread, mono-dominant) plants on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). Four global or European most successful invaders (Impatiens glandulifera, Reynoutria japonica, Rudbeckia laciniata, Solidago gigantea) and two expansive plants native to Europe (Artemisia vulgaris, Phalaris arundinacea) were grown in pots to elucidate the magnitude and direction of changes in AMF abundance, species richness, and species composition in soils from under multispecies native vegetation. In a second stage, the effects of these changes on a native plant, Plantago lanceolata, were assessed. Plant species identity had larger impact on AMF abundance, species richness, and species composition as well as on P. lanceolata than origin of the species (alien vs. native). This could be due to the character of AMF relationships with the plants, i.e., their mycorrhizal status and dependency on AMF. However, the alterations induced by the plant species in soil chemical properties rather than in AMF community were the major drivers of differences in shoot mass and photosynthetic performance of P. lanceolata. We determined that the plants produced species-specific effects on soil properties that, in turn, resulted in species-specific soil feedbacks on the native plant. These effects were not consistent within groups of invaders or natives.     

How pristine are tropical forests? An ecological perspective on the pre-Columbian human footprint in Amazonia and implications for contemporary conservation

Archeologists, paleoecologists and anthropologists argue that ecologists need to give greater consideration to the pre-historical influence of humans in shaping the current structure and composition of tropical forests. We examine these arguments within the context of Amazonia, and assess the extent to which (i) the concepts of “pristine forests” and “cultural parklands” are mutually exclusive, (ii) the aggregated distribution of some plants necessarily indicates enrichment planting, (iii) pre-Columbian human disturbance has increased forest biodiversity, (iv) pre-Columbian indigenous practices were always sustainable, and (v) if indeed, the ecological impacts of pre-Columbian peoples are relevant for modern biodiversity conservation. Overall, we reject the notion that “the pristine myth has been thoroughly debunked” by archeological evidence, and suggest that the environmental impacts of historical peoples occurred along gradients, with high-impacts in settlements and patches of Amazonian Dark Earth (ADE), lesser impacts where occasional enrichment planting took place in forests surrounding agricultural plots, and a very low influence (in terms of light hunting pressure and other types of resource extraction) across vast areas of Amazonia that may always have been far from permanent settlements and navigable rivers. We suggest that the spatial distribution of pre-Columbian finds is given more attention, and urge caution before case studies are extrapolated to the entire Basin. Above all, we feel that debates over “naturalness” and environmental impacts of pre-Columbian humans are of limited relevance to present and future biodiversity conservation, and can detract from the major challenges facing Amazonia and other tropical forest regions today.     

Food variety and dietary diversity scores in children: are they good indicators of dietary adequacy?

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether a food variety score (FVS) and/or a dietary diversity score (DDS) are good indicators of nutrient adequacy of the diet of South African children. METHODS: Secondary data analyses were undertaken with nationally representative data of 1-8-year-old children (n = 2200) studied in the National Food Consumption Study in 1999. An average FVS (mean number of different food items consumed from all possible items eaten) and DDS (mean number of food groups out of nine possible groups) were calculated. A nutrient adequacy ratio (NAR) is the ratio of a subject's nutrient intake to the estimated average requirement calculated using the Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization (2002) recommended nutrient intakes for children. The mean adequacy ratio (MAR) was calculated as the sum of NARs for all evaluated nutrients divided by the number of nutrients evaluated, expressed as a percentage. MAR was used as a composite indicator for micronutrient adequacy. Pearson correlation coefficients between FVS, DDS and MAR were calculated and also evaluated for sensitivity and specificity, with MAR taken as the ideal standard of adequate intake. The relationships between MAR and DDS and between anthropometric Z-scores and DDS were also evaluated. RESULTS: The children had a mean FVS of 5.5 (standard deviation (SD) 2.5) and a mean DDS of 3.6 (SD 1.4). The mean MAR (ideal = 100%) was 50%, and was lowest (45%) in the 7-8-year-old group. The items with the highest frequency of consumption were from the cereal, roots and tuber group (99.6%), followed by the 'other group' (87.6%) comprising items such as tea, sugar, jam and sweets. The dairy group was consumed by 55.8%, meat group by 54.1%, fats by 38.9%, other vegetables by 30.8%, vitamin-A-rich by 23.8%, other fruit by 22%, legumes and nuts by 19.7% and eggs by 13.3%. There was a high correlation between MAR and both FVS (r = 0.726; P < 0.0001) and DDS (r = 0.657; P < 0.0001), indicating that either FVS or DDS can be used as an indicator of the micronutrient adequacy of the diet. Furthermore, MAR, DDS and FVS showed significant correlations with height-for-age and weight-for-age Z-scores, indicating a strong relationship between dietary diversity and indicators of child growth. A DDS of 4 and an FVS of 6 were shown to be the best indicators of MAR less than 50%, since they provided the best sensitivity and specificity. CONCLUSION: Either FVS or DDS can be used as a simple and quick indicator of the micronutrient adequacy of the diet.     

Hierarchical analysis of mite community structures in Irish forests—A study of the relative contribution of location,forest type and microhabitat

In determining the overall γ-diversity within a land use type or when assessing the impact of a land use on biodiversity one has to consider the hierarchically nested nature of the γ-diversity. In this study we used a hierarchical approach to examine the diversity of mites, Oribatei and Mesostigmata, in various forest types in Ireland. The study included sampling at regional, stand, individual tree and microhabitat scales. α- and β-diversity (species richness) was examined at each of these scales and the proportional contribution to the variation accounted for by each level of the hierarchy was quantified. β-Diversity generally accounted for at least 50% of the γ-diversity at all levels of the habitat hierarchy with average values varying from 34% between regions, to 57.5% between forest types within region, to 63% between trees within forest type and 63% between microhabitats within a forest type. Differences between the fauna of microhabitats within a forest type accounted for approximately 30% of the total variation while that of forest types within regions accounted for 10.5%. These results are similar to those reported in several other studies but the study quantifies the variation by examining the relative contributions of α- and β-diversity to species richness. Redundancy Analysis allowed the identification of the proportional contribution of the hierarchical components to the variation in community structure in a manner which has not been used before for these systems.     

Comparison of soil properties of native forests,Pinus patula plantations and adjacent pastures in the Andean highlands of southern Ecuador: land use history or recent vegetation effects?

In the high Andes of Ecuador scarcity of farmland has led to accelerated deforestation, in particular over the last 40 years. Soil mis‐management has caused the rapid decline of soil fertility and most farmland has been irreversibly transformed into grassland or tree plantations. The present study assessed whether pastures and particularly pine plantations were associated with less soil nutrients. The soils from six sites each of native forests and Pinus patula plantations, and their adjacent pastures were sampled in a geographically large area in the Paute watershed, south Ecuador. Soil analyses showed statistically significant differences for soil cations and effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) only. ECEC was highest in soils from native forests and their adjacent pastures (6.4 cmol/kg) compared to pine plantations and their pastures (4.2 cmol/kg). Mean soil organic matter and pH were similar in native forests/pastures (39% SOM; pH 5.4) and in plantations/pastures (40% SOM; pH 5). As pasture soils had ECEC concentrations statistically similar to those of their adjacent forest or plantation, they do not form a single homogeneous land use type based on soil nutrients. Therefore, this study cannot conclude that the presence of pines alone has caused soil degradation, but instead that the soil at the site was already degraded before pines were planted. This study proposes the scenario that pine plantations are established in pastures as a last resort, when the soils are already strongly degraded, and more profitable land uses are not available. Farmers are reluctant to use fertile land for tree plantations, and only the planting of well‐known species, such as pines, is officially encouraged.     

How does the conversion of land cover to urban use affect net primary productivity? A case study in Shenzhen city, China

China has made great economic achievements since the Reform and Opening policy implementation. Shenzhen as the representative city has experienced rapid urbanization and population growth. Urbanization strongly changes the nature of the land surface and has a large influence on the regional ecosystems. In the process of urbanization, fertile cropland and original forest are often destroyed. It is important to regularly monitor the effect of urbanization on the natural environment so as to allow us to control the encroachment to a reasonable extent. Net primary productivity (NPP) is an important productivity indicator of the ecosystem. We obtained land covers from Landsat TM images to quantify urbanization of Shenzhen between 1999 and 2005. We used the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS-based) Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data, Landsat-based land cover map, meteorological data and other field data to drive the CASA productivity model and obtain net primary productivity for the study area. Finally, we estimated the effect of urban sprawl on regional NPP. The study on Landsat-based land cover maps indicated that a move towards urban is the most significant landscape change in Shenzhen City and urbanization has irreversibly transformed about 20.21% of Shenzhen's surface during 1999–2005. NPP loss mainly resulted from urbanization during 1999–2005 and totaled to 321.51 Gg of carbon, an average annual reduction of 45.93 Gg of carbon. For every square km of Shenzhen area, NPP was on average reduced by 0.0017 Gg of carbon during 1999–2005. The loss of NPP is equivalent to a reduction in absorption of 520.85 Gg CO₂ and release of 385.81 Gg O₂, so urbanization has a large influence on the regional net primary productivity.     

Does altered rainfall regime change pesticide effects in soil? A terrestrial model ecosystem study from Mediterranean Portugal on the effects of pyrimethanil to soil microbial communities under extremes in rainfall

In this century, agroecosystems are subjected to multiple global change stressors acting in concert such as alterations in rainfall regimes and pesticide use. Alterations in rainfall regimes, characterised by more extreme intra-annual rainfall regimes, have been forecasted for the Mediterranean region. At the same time, the use of pesticides continues to rise. Here, we report the responses of soil microbial community to a model pesticide, i.e., fungicide pyrimethanil (PYR) under altered rainfall regimes (i.e., drought and heavy rainfall) two and eight weeks after PYR application. We measured the functional responses as enzyme activities, potential nitrification and BIOLOG carbon substrate utilisation. We also characterised the soil bacterial communities using polymerase chain reaction–denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR–DGGE) method. After two weeks, enzyme activities were mainly responsive to PYR and kinetic parameters, calculated from BIOLOG carbon substrate utilisation, indicated interaction effects from PYR and rain treatments. Bacterial band richness increased with PYR treatment under normal rain and drought regimes, but bacterial band richness was higher at 1X than 5X PYR under heavy rainfall. Bacterial community structure was also different with the PYR and rainfall treatments. By week eight, PYR treated soils remained functionally different from untreated soils. Bacterial band richness was consistent across PYR treatment regardless of rain regime. However, the bacterial community structure remained significantly different among the PYR treatments under different rain regimes. We conclude that rainfall extremes can alter the effect of PYR on the soil microbial community structure without altering PYR effects on soil functions (measured as enzyme activities, potential nitrification and BIOLOG carbon substrate utilisation).     

How many soil samples are neccessary to obtain a reliable estimate of mean nitrate concentrations in an agricultural field?

In Germany, field‐average soil NO₃^‐ measurements are used to identify agricultural risks of groundwater pollution and to evaluate the compliance of land users with environmental regulations. In the present study, it was tested at three typical agricultural sites if common practices of soil NO₃^‐ sampling were appropriate to obtain reliable estimates of the mean field NO₃^‐ content in fall. Three sites of 1 ha area were extensively sampled for NO₃^‐. Ordinary statisticial analyses were conducted on the NO₃^‐ data in order to calculate how many samples per ha were required to predict the mean field NO₃^‐ with a given accuracy. Variograms were derived to assess applicability and relevance of ordinary statistical methods for heterogeneous fields. Results from statistical analysis suggest that at two sites common practices of soil NO₃^‐ sampling would have been adequate to obtain estimates of the actual mean field NO₃^‐ content with a sampling error less than 10 kg NO₃^‐‐N ha^—1 at a 95% probability level. At the other site, common practices obviously would have failed because NO₃^‐ contents varied much more spatially. It remains a problem of soil sampling for NO₃^‐ analysis that information on field heterogeneity is frequently not available a priori.     

How much do soil and water contribute to the composition of meat? A case study: meat from three areas of Argentina

The main goal of this study was to propose a reliable method to verify the geographical origin of meat, establishing the influence of soil and water on its isotopic and elemental composition. Thus, beef meat, soil, and water samples were collected from three major cattle-producing regions of Argentina (Buenos Aires, Córdoba, and Entre Ríos). Multielemental composition was determined on these three matrices by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), δ(13)C and δ(15)N by isotope-ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS), and the (87)Sr/(86)Sr ratio by thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS). Soil and drinking water samples could be characterized and clearly differentiated by combining the isotopic ratios and elements, demonstrating differences in geology and climatic conditions of three regions. Similarly, meat originating at each sampling area was characterized and differentiated using only five key variables (Rb, Ca/Sr, δ(13)C, δ(15)N, and (87)Sr/(86)Sr). Generalized procrustes analysis (GPA), using the three studied matrices (soil, water, and meat) shows consensus between them and clear differences between studied areas. Furthermore, canonical correlation analysis (CCA) demonstrates significant correlation between the chemical-isotopic profile of meat with those corresponding to both soil and water (r(2) = 0.93, p < 0.001; and r(2) = 0.83, p < 0.001, respectively). So far, there are clear coincidences between the meat fingerprint and those from soil/water where cattle grew, presenting a good method to establish beef provenance. To the authors' knowledge this is the first report linking the influence of soil and water all together on the composition of beef, presenting the basis for the authentication of Argentinean beef, which could be extended to meat from different provenances.     

Is sustainable development based on agriculture attainable in Kenya? A multidisciplinary case study of Murang'a district

Kenya's development seems trapped in a vicious circle caused by soil erosion, declining soil fertility, land fragmentation, fluctuating agricultural production, widespread poverty, corruption, ethnic tension, rapid population, urban growth and a declining economy. The development challenge is to reverse the negative effects of these processes and promote sustainable development. This paper, based on multidisciplinary work discusses whether sustainable development based on agriculture is attainable in Murang'a district in Kenya's Central Highlands. Firstly, it investigates some biophysical aspects of sustainable agriculture such as land use across time, soil nutrient status and yield, cultivated crops and soil productivity by analysing aerial photographs and soil samples and conducting interviews. It suggests that the area has gone through major biophysical changes. Second, it relates the farmers' attitude to promotion of sustainable development as carried out by the National Soil and Water Conservation Programme. It suggests that farmers carry ideas of corruption, often following ethnic lines that hampers efficient implementation of the extension advise. Finally, it identifies links behind rural‐urban migration by estimating households' probability of generating incomes outside the farm, typically in urban areas. Opportunistic farming, manifested by temporary reduction of farming on own land to satisfy immediate income needs, is very common among farmers. More needs to be done to promote agro‐based, small‐scale rural industries, improve agricultural management practices, facilitate appropriate credits, enhance marketing opportunities, ensure timely crop payments, and increase participation in decision making. It is important to realize that for farmers to embrace policies which promote agriculturely‐based sustainable development the policies ought to biophysically possible, socio‐politically acceptable and economically feasible. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

How many common reptile species are fire specialists? A replicated natural experiment highlights the predictive weakness of a fire succession model

Species with strong preferences for early or late successional stages after fire may be extinction prone under current fire regimes. However, the extent of specialisation to time since fire is poorly understood, and, for reptiles, succession models for predicting responses are in the development phase. In this study we tested predictions of a reptile succession model, and identified species that may be fire specialists. Reptiles were sampled in five burnt and unburnt mallee Eucalyptus woodlands, Australia. Two, 400 m transects within each burn treatment were sampled using 11 pairs of pitfall-traps that were opened for five weeks over two summers. A habitat accommodation model of succession that was previously developed for mallee reptiles correctly predicted the observed responses of three of 16 common reptile species. A further four species showed non-significant trends in the predicted direction. However, eight other species showed unexpected responses. One species showed a strong interaction between burn age and location, requiring a two-dimensional successional model in contrast with the usual linear models explaining reptile responses to fire. One third of common species were not affected by fire and so may not have increased risks of extinction due to the fire suppression/incineration cycle. However, approximately half to two-thirds of common reptiles did have a fire response, so the risk of deterministic extinction in small fragments may be substantial. Further model development is needed to better predict fire responses and to assist the design of fire mosaics that can accommodate early and late successional fire specialists.     

Is ‘grey literature’ a reliable source of data to characterize soils at the scale of a region? A case study in a maritime pine forest in southwestern France

Soil scientists are receiving increasing numbers of requests for expert advice on soil over large areas, but at a high resolution. We tested the use of the soil data contained in sources of information that are not directly accessible (referred to as ‘grey’ data) to accomplish this task. We collected grey data about a pine forest, which is currently the subject of drastic, and questionable, changes in management, including a rapid rate of biomass removal. These grey data (from 266 sites) were compared with soil data obtained directly from our field sampling (83 sites). Our comparisons showed that the two sources of data were consistent when the variables concerned had been sampled and analysed by using methods shared by the soil scientists such as particle‐size distribution. Conversely, significant discrepancies appeared for variables for which different methods existed, such as for CEC. For the latter, using corrective equations gave contrasting results, depending on the soil variable. The final database was used to characterize the soils of the study region. Results showed that soils of the study region (mainly sandy podzols and arenosols) were acidic and particularly oligotrophic. Several important properties (CEC, phosphorus cycling, pH, bulk density) were related to the organic fraction or carbon (C) content of soils. For instance, CEC values were linearly and exclusively dependent on C content. The most oligotrophic sites of the study region were clearly not suitable for the new intensive management of the forest in the long term. For the other sites, the question remains open because some specific data are still needed before drawing conclusions. We conclude that as a complement to conventional soil studies, the grey literature is a useful source of data and information to characterize soils at a regional scale.     

Are the declining trends in forest grouse populations due to changes in the forest age structure? A case study of Capercaillie in Finland

In Finland, Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) populations have a history of serious decrease starting from the mid-20th century. The decline is temporally in line with the expansion of modern forestry practices that created major changes in the landscape. We used tetraonid route-censuses from 18 forestry board districts and Finnish forest inventories (data on forest stand structure) to analyze the decline in 1965-1988. We used information theoretical model selection to evaluate a set of log-linear second order autoregressive models, allowing for spatially correlated process errors. The average trend throughout the country corresponded to an annual decline of 4.01% (mean of local trends) ± 0.24% (SEM), parallel to a half-life of 17 years. The decline was surprisingly uniform throughout the country (SD = 1.01%) and most parsimoniously explained by a geographically constant log-linear trend. At the large scale of observation applied here, population trends could not be explained by the proportional increase of younger forest age classes (<40 years old and <80 years old, respectively). Our analysis does not support the hypothesis that the decline in Capercaillie numbers is due to changes in the forest age structure, but we cannot exclude the possibility that other factors behind the decline may have interacted with forestry in general. From a conservation point of view, we caution against over-emphasizing the role of forest age especially at large spatial scales, but leaning also on other research, we recommend that more management efforts would go into the preservation of the overall forest cover and the original physiognomy in single forest patches.     

Are opportunities for vitamin A supplementation being utilised at primary health-care clinics in the Western Cape Province of South Africa?

OBJECTIVES: To determine missed opportunities and problems relating to implementation of the Vitamin A Supplementation Programme in urban and rural regions of the Western Cape Province of South Africa.MethodA cross-sectional survey was conducted at primary health-care (PHC) clinics in Cape Metropole, an urban region, and West Coast Winelands, a rural region, of the Western Cape. A purposive sample of clinics where more than 30 children were seen per day was drawn from 10 of the 11 districts in the Cape Metropole region and the two districts of the West Coast Winelands region. The number of children selected from each district was weighted in terms of population size for the two regions. At each clinic visited, the first five to 10 children seen on a day, and meeting the inclusion criteria for vitamin A supplementation (VAS) based on the vitamin A provincial policy guidelines, were selected. These included children with low birth weight (LBW), growth faltering, underweight and severe undernutrition, recurrent diarrhoea and lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI), tuberculosis, measles, HIV/AIDS and eye signs of vitamin A deficiency. Clinic records were reviewed following consultation with the PHC nurse to identify if the child required vitamin A, exit interviews were conducted with mothers/caregivers, and Road to Health Charts (RTHCs) were reviewed. At the end of the study, PHC managers were interviewed to determine if problems could be identified with the Programme. RESULTS: Forty-three of 123 (35%) and 13 of 40 (33%) of the fixed PHC clinics in the Cape Metropole and West Coast Winelands regions were visited, and a total of 300 children (234 from Cape Metropole, 66 from West Coast Winelands) with a mean (standard deviation) age of 24.3 (16.3) months and who met the inclusion criteria for VAS were selected. Of the total sample of children, 198 (66%) had multiple (i.e. more than one) indication and 102 (34%) had a single indication for VAS. There were a total of 617 indications for VAS in the two regions; 238 (39%) for growth faltering, 119 (19%) for underweight, 98 (16%) for LBW, 70 (11%) for LRTI, 51 (8%) for diarrhoea, 21 (3%) for HIV/AIDS and 20 (3%) for tuberculosis. A total of 102 (34%) of the children in the two regions received vitamin A supplements (Cape Metropole 29%; West Coast Winelands 52%). A record was made on the RTHC of 79 (77%) of the children who received VAS (Cape Metropole 76%; West Coast Winelands 79%). Twenty-four per cent of the mothers knew why their child had been given vitamin A (Cape Metropole 29%; West Coast Winelands 12%). Eleven per cent of the mothers had previously heard about the Vitamin A Supplementation Programme (Cape Metropole 12%; West Coast Winelands 6%). More than 81% of PHC managers indicated that health staff had been trained to implement the Vitamin A Supplementation Programme. The main problems identified by health staff in the two regions were lack of vitamin A capsules, inadequate training and difficulties in implementing the Programme. CONCLUSIONS: Opportunities to administer vitamin A were underutilised in both regions. Recommendations such as improving mothers' awareness of the benefits of vitamin A and training of PHC nurses were made to the provincial Department of Health and are being implemented to improve the effectiveness of the Programme.