The growth and survival of experimental batches of hatchery-reared spat of Ostrea edulis L. and Crassostrea gigas thunberg,using different methods of tray cultivation

The seasonal growth and survival of experimental batches of hatchery-reared spat of the European oyster (Ostrea edulis) and the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) was followed in North Wales during the period 1972 to 1975. Three methods of tray cultivation were compared. These were: (a) trays suspended from a raft in the Menai Straits, (b) trays supported on trestles on the foreshore of the Menai Straits, and (c) trays in a laboratory nursery system which were supplied with sea water from Conwy estuary via a pumped storage system.Growth of oysters in the nursery system was consistently inferior to that of oysters kept at either site in the sea. Although in several years there were significant differences between the growth of oysters on the raft and in trays supported by trestles, on average neither site consistently produced larger oysters.Survival was significantly better in the nursery system for both species of oyster, but no consistent differences in survival were observed between either site in the sea.Seasonal growth of both species of oyster as well as the mortality of O. edulis were positively related to temperature. It was concluded on the basis of cost that (i) cultivation in systems employing pumped sea water would not be viable in the long term, and (ii) raft cultivation would only be suitable for post-hatchery sized oysters up to about 5 g live weight.     

Experimental suspended culture of mussels (Mytilus edulis L.) in Wales using spat transplanted from a distant settlement ground

Spat of Mytilus edulis L. were transferred 300 km by road on collectors from an area of high and regular spatfall, but unfavourable culture conditions, to a raft at a site deficient in mussel settlement. Spat were collected on coir ropes and fibrous rubberized matting staked to intertidal settlement grounds in Morecambe Bay, northwest England. During January to April, 80 mm circumference ropes could collect 3 000–7 000 spat/m/week, with smaller numbers in other months, and fibrous matting sometimes also caught many spat.Spatted collectors were suspended in the Menai Straits, North Wales. Despite heavy losses from overcrowding, fast currents and turbulence, growth was sufficiently good for some rope populations to produce marketable crops after about 16 months. Mean lengths increased from 1.5–5.0 mm to 47.5 mm in the first year, and to 60 mm after 1.5–2 years. At about 55 mm, attained at ca 16 months, the best crops yielded 10–15 kg/m live weight, corresponding to 2–3 kg of cooked meat/m. Percentage meat yields from 40–50 mm mussels were equally good, suggesting that crops could be harvested below the present marketable size.Economic systems for collecting spat and for on-growing at controlled densities remain to be developed for different hydrographic conditions and scales of commercial operation in Britain.     

Condition and variability in Mytilus edulis (L.) from different habitats in Ireland

Twenty-one samples of Mytilus edulis L., taken from three habitats; commercial rafts, commercial subtidal beds, and non-commercial intertidal regions, were examined. Three condition indices: dry meat weight/internal volume, shell weight/internal volume, and dry meat weight/shell weight; and two morphological ratios: internal volume versus length and shell weight versus length, were calculated for each sample. The relative weight of the shells increased and the meat weight decreased, as we examined samples from rafts, subtidal, and intertidal regions, in that order. The size-related increase of shell weight was relatively greater than the increase of volume in intertidal mussels, in contrast to raft mussels. These findings agree with the commercial practice of relocating mussels to subtidal beds to improve their meat yield. There were no significant clines in the data associated with geographical location, although there were very marked local variations in all factors measured. Variability was as great in raft mussels as in wild intertidal ones. Meat weight was consistently more variable than shell weight, and these two variabilities were not correlated. Because of the strong local variation reflected in the significantly different values for the ratio meat weight/shell weight, in virtually all populations, we concluded that comparisons of stocks or growth must be carried out in the same location to have any validity.     

Review of molluscan bivalve condition index calculations and application in Northern Quahogs Mercenaria mercenaria

Condition index (CI) is a widely used parameter in ecological and physiological studies. For molluscan bivalves, no universal consensus exists for CI calculation. A literature review revealed that a total of 19 methods have been used for CI calculation in molluscan bivalves. To evaluate the CI calculation in northern quahogs Mercenaria mercenaria (also called hard clams), market‐sized clams at 12–14 months old (n = 300 from three populations) were collected for gravimetrical and volumetric measurements. Significant correlations were identified among body sizes (body length, height and width), body weights (total weight, wet meat weight, dry meat weight, wet shell weight, dry shell weight) and body volume (p < .0001, R values ≥ .800). Referencing previously used CI equations for molluscan bivalves, a total of 18 equations were evaluated the suitability, considering non‐lethal measurements, for northern quahogs through correlation analysis of the CIs from different equations. With equations constructed as the percentages of dry or wet meat weight out of total weight, dry shell weight, dry shell plus meat weight, body volume, body length*height*width, shell length or cubic of shell length, CIs were significantly correlated, meaning that these equations were exchangeable. Specifically, three equations with non‐lethal measurements (percentages of total body weight out of total body volume, body length*height*width or cubic of body length) were evaluated effective. Overall, this publication provided a review for CI calculations in molluscan bivalves and evaluated the CI equations for northern quahogs.     

Nursery growth, survival and chemical composition of great scallop Pecten maximus (L.) spat from different larval settlement groups

Scallop Pecten maximus spat (1.3–2.1 mm shell height) from different settlement groups were transferred from hatchery to land‐based nursery at different ages and sizes. Chemical content, growth and survival were compared at transfer time and after 1 and 8 weeks of nursery growth. Growth was lowest and mortality highest in the first week after transfer. Mean shell height growth was 21.5–71.4 μm day^?1 and ash‐free dry weight (AFDW) growth ?2.7 to 10.3 μg day^?1. Spat from the first settlement group attained a larger size and weight than spat from larvae settled 3 days later, but had a lower daily growth rate (%). Keeping the late‐settled spat a longer time in the hatchery to reach a bigger size before transfer seemed not to improve subsequent nursery growth. Survival showed a large variation with mean survival ranging from 32% to 74%. A substantial reduction in lipid content was found after transfer to the nursery. Sterol content at transfer was the only lipid class correlating with survival in the nursery. Based on the results, it is justified that spat groups of different settlement age are included in production of 15‐mm great scallop spat if they are transferred from the hatchery at the same age.     

Nutritional value of Pavlova spp. (Prymnesiophyceae) for spat of the Cortez oyster Crassostrea corteziensis during late-nursery culturing at the hatchery

Three Pavlova species were evaluated for their nutritional value as diets for growth and survival of the Cortez oyster Crassostrea corteziensis spat during late‐nursery cultivation at a hatchery. Microalgae were provided as monospecific diets (Pavlova salina, P. sp. C50 and P. sp. C53) and in binary combinations of diets 1+2, 1+3 and 2+3 at 80–90 × 10³ cells mL^?1 for 21 days. Juveniles experienced high survival rates and grew well with all dietary treatments, but binary diets yielded greater survival and growth of spat. From the three binary treatments, Diet 6 (P. sp. C50 and P. sp. C53) promoted significantly (P<0.001) fastest growth of juveniles in shell height (0.19 mm day^?1), shell length (0.14 mm day^?1), total wet weight (0.04 g day^?1) and dry weight of meat biomass (0.024 g day^?1). For all shell dimensions, the lowest growth rates occurred with Diets 2 (P. sp. C56 alone) and 3 (P. sp. C50 alone). These results highlight the importance of testing microalgal diets for bivalve spat rather than just relying on published nutritional values.     

^60Co-γ射线对成体长牡蛎生长的影响及致死效应

Effects of ionizing irradiation of ^60Co-γ ray on mortality and growth of one year-old Pacific oysters ( Crassotrea gigas ) were studied. Irradiation was conducted at 4℃ and without sea water, and the survival, shell length, shell width, whole wet weight and condition index of irradiated oysters were measured. A biphasic dose response effect of 6^60Co-γ irradiation on Pacific oyster with high stimulatory response dose range to 100 Gy, and strong hormesis effects had been observed. Gamma ray induced mortality happened within 90 days after irradiation, and the relation between dosage ( D ) and mortality at 90 days could be described by the equation of M90 = 0.0041D^2- 0. 1816D (R^2= 0. 9958) with an LD50/90 of 135 Gy, indicating that the Pacific oyster has strong resistance to ^60Co-γ irradiation. Growth in shell length, shell width and whole wet weight of Pacific oyster were also enhanced by 60 Gy of ^60Co-γ ray. The condition index was also enhanced by ^60Co-γ irradiation in the dosage range from 40 to 100 Gy, with the maximum stimulatory response of 2.5 fold of control value at the 40 Gy dosage, suggesting that the accelerating effects of γ ray on growth of the Pacific oyster led to increase in dry meat. Results of this study showed that ionizing irradiation might be useful in the improvement of production traits in shellfish.     

Growth variations within a farm of mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) held near fish cages: importance for the implementation of integrated aquaculture

Fish farming releases extensive amounts of particulate organic waste that can be exploited by bivalves in integrated culture. We tested if mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis cultured at two depths (1 and 6 m) in a raft, moored 170 m from a fish farm had greater growth than bivalves held 550 m from the fish cages. Mussel growth was monitored monthly, covering the second phase of the culture, from thinning‐out to harvest (March to November 2011). We also studied if fish solid and dissolved nutrients increased the organic content of the seston and chlorophyll‐a levels near the fish cages through weekly samples. Results showed no differences in seston, chlorophyll and physiochemical characteristics of the water among rafts. Maximum growth and Condition Index (CI) occurred during spring–summer (April–August), when mussels had access to greater food quality and quantity. Mussels cultivated close to the cages showed similar shell length, weight and CI compared with mussels distant from the fish farm. Average shell length, meat dry weight and CI at harvest were 76.31 mm, 2.51 g and 23%. Bivalves cultured distant from the fish cages displayed 26% higher biomass than the other raft at the end of the experiment. Differences in biomass were explained by the significantly higher recruitment of mussel seed observed at the raft distant from the fish cages from June to November. The lack of a significant enhancement in growth of the bivalves cultured next to finfish is discussed.     

深凹壳型香港牡蛎家系生长与存活性状比较

为了培育壳型和生长性状优良的深凹壳型香港牡蛎(Crassostrea hongkongensis)新品系,以广东台山镇海湾香港牡蛎野生群体为基础群体,以壳型和生长为主要选育目标,依据壳型指数D和巢式设计建立了30个全同胞家系和1个对照组,评估各家系和对照组在幼虫期和稚贝期的生长和存活性能。结果表明,整个生长阶段,各家系生长性状和存活率的平均值均高于对照组。幼虫期,所有家系壳高、生长速度以及存活率的平均值均高于对照组,所有家系壳高平均值比对照组提高3.78%～7.73%,生长速度提高7.86%,存活率提高2.85%～7.32%。稚贝期,所有家系壳高、壳长以及生长速度、存活率的平均值均高于对照组平均值,壳高提高5.23%～16.32%,壳长提高7.94%～10.69%,生长速度提高9.55%～20.16%,存活率提高3.45%～12.25%。不同家系在不同时期的生长性状和存活性能也表现出较大的差异,G1在整个稚贝期的生长性状、生长速度以及存活率的平均值均显著高于所有家系和对照组的平均值, 12月龄G1家系的壳高、壳长、壳宽、壳型指数D、总重、壳重、软体重、存活率比所有家系平均值提高9.83%～54.75%,相比对照组平均值提高23.34%～80.77%,同时G3、G10、G12、G15、G19、G23、G26在稚贝期也表现出较大的生长优势和存活优势。研究表明,深凹壳型香港牡蛎家系选育群体在生长性状和存活性能上均具有较大的优势, G1、G3、G10、G12、G15、G19、G23、G26可作为后期培育生长性能优良的深凹壳型香港牡蛎新品系的育种材料。本研究为中国华南地区培育出深凹壳型、生长性能良好的香港牡蛎优良品种提供了理论基础和数据材料。     

长牡蛎成体生长性状的遗传参数估计

在长牡蛎(Crassostrea gigas)的选择育种工作中,于2009年和2010年分别获得24个和32个全同胞家系。根据长牡蛎360日龄的壳高、壳长、壳宽、总重、壳重、肉重和出肉率参数,利用ASREML软件的REML方法计算表型变量的方差组分,估算了长牡蛎成体阶段生长性状的遗传参数。结果表明,不同年份长牡蛎家系的生长存在显著差异,2009年家系的壳高、肉重和出肉率显著低于2010年家系(P<0.05),2009年家系的总重则显著高于2010家系(P<0.05)。除出肉率外,2009年和2010年家系的壳高与其他生长性状均存在显著的正相关性(P<0.05)。壳高和总重具有较高的遗传力,分别为0.35±0.15和0.27±0.13。长牡蛎成体阶段各生长性状间的遗传相关和表型相关均为正相关,但相关性的大小不同。本研究估测的长牡蛎成体阶段生长性状的遗传参数,可以为合理制定长牡蛎的育种方案和选择反应预测提供参考依据。     

Modeling meat yield based on measurements of body traits in genetically improved giant freshwater prawn (GFP) Macrobrachium rosenbergii

A single-generation dataset consisting of 1,730 records from a selection program for high growth rate in giant freshwater prawn (GFP, Macrobrachium rosenbergii) was used to derive prediction equations for meat weight and meat yield. Models were based on body traits [body weight, total length and abdominal width (AW)] and carcass measurements (tail weight and exoskeleton-off weight). Lengths and width were adjusted for the systematic effects of selection line, male morphotypes and female reproductive status, and for the covariables of age at slaughter within sex and body weight. Body and meat weights adjusted for the same effects (except body weight) were used to calculate meat yield (expressed as percentage of tail weight/body weight and exoskeleton-off weight/body weight). The edible meat weight and yield in this GFP population ranged from 12 to 15 g and 37 to 45 %, respectively. The simple (Pearson) correlation coefficients between body traits (body weight, total length and AW) and meat weight were moderate to very high and positive (0.75–0.94), but the correlations between body traits and meat yield were negative (?0.47 to ?0.74). There were strong linear positive relationships between measurements of body traits and meat weight, whereas relationships of body traits with meat yield were moderate and negative. Step-wise multiple regression analysis showed that the best model to predict meat weight included all body traits, with a coefficient of determination (R ²) of 0.99 and a correlation between observed and predicted values of meat weight of 0.99. The corresponding figures for meat yield were 0.91 and 0.95, respectively. Body weight or length was the best predictor of meat weight, explaining 91–94 % of observed variance when it was fitted alone in the model. By contrast, tail width explained a lower proportion (69–82 %) of total variance in the single trait models. It is concluded that in practical breeding programs, improvement of meat weight can be easily made through indirect selection for body trait combinations. The improvement of meat yield, albeit being more difficult, is possible by genetic means, with 91 % of the variation in the trait explained by the body and carcass traits examined in this study.     

干露及淡水浸泡对菲律宾蛤仔稚贝生长和存活的影响

于2004年3—5月研究了干露及淡水浸泡对菲律宾蛤仔稚贝生长及存活的影响。试验结果表明,(1)同种规格稚贝耐干露和淡水浸泡能力随着温度升高而下降;相同温度下,不同规格稚贝耐干露能力随规格的增加而增大,耐淡水浸泡能力在稚贝壳长9.5mm时,随规格增大而增大,当稚贝规格9.5mm时,耐淡水浸泡能力随规格的增大而减小。(2)经干露和淡水浸泡的稚贝在开始7d内生长缓慢,生长速度远不及未经处理的稚贝,7d后各种规格的稚贝生长明显加快,达到、甚至超过未经处理稚贝的生长速度,存在补偿生长现象。     

Studies on triploid oysters in Australia: farming potential of all-triploid Pacific oysters, Crassostrea gigas (Thunberg), in Port Stephens, New South Wales, Australia

Triploid Pacific oysters Crassostrea gigas farmed in Port Stephens, NSW had an exceptionally fast growth rate and reached a whole weight of 55 g in 13 months versus 20 months for diploids. Mortality of the triploids (24.5±2.94%) was significantly lower (P<0.05) than that of the diploids (40.0±2.26%) over the duration of the experiment (July 2002–February 2004). Unfortunately, this advantage was offset by discoloration of the meats of the triploids when they were in better condition than the diploids over summer (October 2003–March 2004). However, discoloration of meat of triploids had cleared up by April 2004 and neither did they suffer this problem from April–September 2003. The triploids also had a lower peak condition than the diploids. Oysters in peak meat condition, i.e. spawning condition, are preferred for the half shell trade in Australia and in this study, there was at least a six‐month period prior to discoloration, when the triploids were large enough and had sufficient meat condition for marketing on the half shell.     

Effects of selected mixed‐algal diets on growth and survival of early postset juveniles of the Pacific geoduck clam,Panopea generosa (Gould, 1850)

Four microalgal species [Dunaliella tertiolecta, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Tetraselmis suecica, Thalassiosira pseudonana], previously identified as poor single‐algal diets for juvenile geoduck clams, Panopea generosa, were selected to mix with two comparatively better food‐value microalgae [Isochrysis sp. (TISO), Chaetoceros muelleri (CM)] to estimate synergistic or non‐additive effects of mixed microalgae on the growth/survival of young juveniles of P. generosa. In addition, the effects of different TISO/CM proportions [75/25, 50/50, 25/75; ash‐free dry weight (AFDW) basis] on growth/survival were assessed. Shell length, wet weight, dry weight, AFDW and organic matter content were significantly increased when using mixed TISO diets compared with TISO alone. In contrast, there were no significant differences with these variables when comparing mixed CM diets with CM alone. Ultimately, the best diet in terms of length and weight enhancement was a previously identified optimal one of TISO/CM (50/50). Survival on day 23 (60.7–79.3%) was not significantly different among any of the 11 diets tested. There were no significant differences in shell length, wet weight, dry weight, AFDW and organic matter content among the three TISO/CM ratios tested, but these diets gave superior results to TISO and CM fed alone. Survival (60.7–74.7%) on day 23 in the three TISO/CM ratios tested did not vary significantly.     

A comparison of techniques for the measurement of growth in adult lobsters

Four non-destructive measures of growth (wet weight in air, wet weight in water, displacement volume and carapace length) were correlated to two destructive measures of growth (dry weight and total body protein level) in adult American lobsters (Homarus americanus). All non-destructive parameters were significantly (P < 0.05) correlated to dry weight and protein for female lobsters. Only wet weight in water was significantly correlated to dry weight and total body protein level in male lobsters.     

The effect of ration size on the growth and growth efficiency of the bivalve mollusc Tapes japonica

The growth and gross growth efficiency of small Japanese little-neck clams, Tapes japonica, were investigated under two sets of experimental conditions. Over a 21-day period, growth of the clams, measured as an increase in dry weight and meat protein-N, was found to be correlated with the quantity of algal protein-N available and the amount of algal protein-N actually consumed by animals maintained at three different phytoplankton levels. With an increase in the quantity of phytoplankton presented there was a proportional increase in the quantity consumed and an increase in growth. The gross growth efficiency, based on the protein-N content of the algae consumed and the dry meat gain in protein-N, was highest at the lowest phytoplankton level (48%). At the two other phytoplankton levels there was little difference in growth efficiency, and it averaged 37.6%. Two tank designs were used in the study, one in which the fecal matter settled out of suspension and one in which the fecal material was continuously resuspended. There was little difference in the growth achieved using either tank design.     

Optimal dietary protein requirement for juvenile ivory shell, Babylonia areolate

A growth experiment was conducted to determine the optimal dietary protein requirement for juvenile ivory shell reared in indoor aerated aquaria. Six isoenergetic experimental diets using fish meal, casein and gelatin as protein sources were formulated to contain graded levels of protein (27, 33, 38, 43, 49 and 54% of dry diet, respectively). Triplicate groups of 40 shells (average weight 93.50 ± 1.70 mg) were stocked in 120-l tanks and fed to apparent satiation twice daily for 8 weeks. The results showed that the growth performance and feed utilization were significantly affected by dietary protein level (P < 0.05). Maximum weight gain, mean protein gain, specific growth rate and soft body to shell ratio occurred at 43% dietary protein level (P < 0.05). There were significant differences in protein, lipid, moisture and ash content in soft body; except that ash content in shell was not significantly affected by dietary protein level. Pepsin activity in soft body tissue significantly increased with dietary protein level up to 43%, and trypsin-like enzyme activity increased with dietary protein level up to 49%. However, lipase activity in soft body decreased with increasing dietary protein level. However, no significant differences (P < 0.05) in survival, calcium, phosphorus concentration in the shell and soft body were found among dietary treatments. Quadratic regression analysis of weight gain against dietary protein level indicated that the optimal dietary protein requirement for maximum growth and feed utilization of juvenile ivory shell is 45% of dry diet.     

Potential for production of ‘mini-mussels’ in Great Belt (Denmark) evaluated on basis of actual and modeled growth of young mussels Mytilus edulis

The present study is a first step towards evaluation of the potential for line-mussel production in the Great Belt region between the Kattegat and Baltic Sea, Denmark. We present experimental results for actual growth rates of juvenile/adult mussels Mytilus edulis in suspended net bags in terms of shell length and dry weight of soft parts during extended periods (27–80 days) in the productive season in the first 6 series of field experiments, including 4 sites in Great Belt and 2 sites in Limfjorden, Denmark. Data were correlated and interpreted in terms of specific growth rate (μ, % day^?1) as a function of dry weight of soft parts (W, g) by a previously developed simple bioenergetic growth model μ = aW ^?0.34. Results were generally in good agreement with the model which assumes the prevailing average chlorophyll a concentration at field sites to essentially account for the nutrition. Our studies have shown that M. edulis can grow from settlement in spring to 30 mm in shell length in November. We therefore suggest line farming of 30 mm ‘mini-mussels’ during one growth season, recovering all equipment at the time of harvest and re-establishing it with a new population of settled mussel larvae at the beginning of the next season, thus protecting the equipment from the damaging weather of the Danish winter season. The growth behavior during the fall–winter season was recorded in an additional 7th series of mussel growth experiments on farm-ropes to show the disadvantage of this period.     

Evaluation of Five Microalgae Diets for Juvenile Pen Shells Atrina maura

–Juvenile pen shells Atrina maura were fed for 21 d with equal daily rations, equivalent to 6.5% of their live weight, of monoalgal cultures of Tetraselmis suecica, Isochrysis galbana, Chaetoceros muelleri, Chaetoceros calcitrans , and Thalassiosira pseudonana. Pen shell survival was 100% in all cases. All microalgae diets produced shell growth, and live and ash-free dry weight increases. However, the two Chaetoceros strains gave significantly better results, with shell height increases of 4.7 to 2.9 mm, live weight gains of 0.5 to 0.3 g, and final ash-free dry weights of 0.16 to 0.14 g after 3 wk. These results are not related to the algae gross biochemical composition, suggesting that other factors are involved in their nutritional value for this mollusc species.     

Effect of different longline farming designs over the growth of Mytilus chilensis (Hupé, 1854) at Llico Bay, VIII Región of Bio-Bio, Chile

This study evaluates the effect of three culture design factors over the growth of the Mylitus chilensis, farmed through suspended systems known as longline with buoys, and longline with High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) tubes. The study was carried out at the Llico Bay, VIII Region of Bio-Bio, Chile. The three factors studied are: sleeve spacing, sleeve type and depth. The results show that in the longline with buoy system, the sleeve spacing presented a significant effect over the shell length and the wet meat weight (p < 0.001, for both growth variables). On the longline of HDPE tubes system, the sleeve spacing had a significant effect over the meat yield (p < 0.001). The depth factor had the most important effect over the growth on the longline with HDPE tubes system (p < 0.001). The sleeve type presented an effect on all growth variables (p < 0.001), but only in the longline of HDPE tubes. The conclusion is that on the longline with buoys, for M. chilensis farming, the best growth results and operational advantages are obtained under the following design configuration: continuous sleeve with spacing between sleeves of 40 cm, and a length/depth of 6 m. For the longline with HDPE tubes, the best configuration is a net sleeve, with gaps of 40 cm and a length of 6 m. When comparing results by both types of longline in a semi exposed zone, at the end of the study period, the longline of HDPE tubes shows superior results in shell length and meat yield over the longline of buoys with an 8.13% increase in the shell length and a 7.22% in meat yield.