Optimization of nitrogen rate and seed density for safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) production under low-input farming conditions in temperate climate

Field experiments under low-input farming conditions were conducted in South West Germany (lhinger Hof) and North Switzerland (Wil) in 2004 and 2005 aimed at optimizing nitrogen rate and seed density for the production of the newly introduced safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.). The experiments were laid out in a four-replicated-split plot design with three nitrogen fertilizer rates (0, 40, 80 kg/ha) as main plots and cultivars (Sabina, Saffire, BS-62915) and seed densities (50, 100, 150 seeds/rn2) randomized in split plots. It was shown that many traits responded differentially across environments to rate of nitrogen and seed density. Application of 40 and 80 kg N/ha did not significantly affect most of the investigated traits. At Ihinger Hof, the total nitrogen fertilizer needed to maximize safflower yield was estimated to be 86 kg N/ha. At Wil, residual soil nitrogen alone resulted in satisfactory seed yield when safflower followed a crop fertilized at a commercial rate. The nitrogen rate × seed density interaction was only significant for seed yield and Alternaria leaf spot disease. Nitrogen rates provided significant increases in seed yield at high seed density compared to low seed density. Seed density did not reveal any significant variation in seed yield, oil content, and oil yield. On average, the low seed density produced substantially higher numbers of heads/plant and seeds/plant compared to medium and high densities. These results demonstrate the ability of safflower to use residual soil nitrogen efficiently and to compensate for low plant density.     

Methods on Identification and Screening of Rice Genotypes with High Nitrogen Efficiency

In order to establish methods for indentification and screening of rice genotypes with high nitrogen (N) efficiency, N absorption efficiency (NAE), N utilization efficiency (NUE) and N harvest index (NHI) in ten rice genotypes were investgated at the elongation, booting, heading and maturity stages under six N levels in a pot experiment with soil-sand mixtures at various ratios. NAE in various rice genotypes firstly increased, peaked under a medium nitrogen rate of 0.177 g/kg and then decreased, but NUE and NHI always decreased with increasing nitrogen levels. NAE in various rice genotypes ever increased with growing process and NUE indicated a descending tendency of elongation stage>heading stage>maturity stage>booting stage. N level influenced rice NAE, NUE and NHI most, followed by genotype, and the both effects were significant at 0.01 level. In addition, the interaction effects of genotype and nitrogen level on rice NAE and NUE were significant at 0.01 level, but not significant on rice NHI. Because the maximum differences of NAE and NUE were found at the elongation stage, it was thought to be the most suitable stage for identification and screening these two paremeters. Therefore, the optimum conditions for identification and screening of rice NAE, NUE and NHI in a pot experiment were the nitrogen rate of 0.157 g/kg at the elongation stage, low nitrogen at the elongation stage, and the nitrogen rate of 0.277 g/kg at the maturity stage, respectively.     

Identification of traits to improve the nitrogen-use efficiency of wheat genotypes

Nitrogen (N) fertilizer represents a significant cost for the grower and may also have environmental impacts through nitrate leaching and N₂O (a greenhouse gas) emissions associated with denitrification. The objectives of this study were to analyze the genetic variability in N-use efficiency (grain dry matter (DM) yield per unit N available from soil and fertilizer; NUE) in winter wheat and identify traits for improved NUE for application in breeding. Fourteen UK and French cultivars and two French advanced breeding lines were tested in a 2 year/four site network comprising different locations in France and in the UK. Detailed growth analysis was conducted at anthesis and harvest in experiments including DM and N partitioning. Senescence of either the flag leaf or the whole leaf canopy was assessed from a visual score every 3-4 days from anthesis to complete canopy senescence. The senescence score was fitted against thermal time using a five parameters monomolecular-logistic equation allowing the estimation of the timing of the onset and the rate of post-anthesis senescence. In each experiment, grain yield was reduced under low N (LN), with an average reduction of 2.2 t ha⁻¹ (29%). Significant N × genotype level interaction was observed for NUE. Crop N uptake at harvest on average was reduced from 227 kg N ha⁻¹ under high N (HN) to 109 kg N ha⁻¹ under LN conditions while N-utilization efficiency (grain DM yield per unit crop N uptake at harvest; NUtE) increased from 34.0 to 52.1 kg DM kg⁻¹ N. Overall genetic variability in NUE under LN related mainly to differences in NUtE rather than N-uptake efficiency (crop N uptake at harvest per unit N available from soil and fertilizer; NUpE). However, at one site there was also a positive correlation between NUpE and NUE at LN in both years. Moreover, across the 2 year/four site network, the N × genotype effect for NUpE partly explained the N × genotype effect for grain yield and NUE. Averaging across the 16 genotypes, the timing of onset of senescence explained 86% of the variation in NUtE amongst site-season-N treatment combinations. The linear regression of onset of senescence on NutE amongst genoytpes was not significant under HN, but at three of the four sites was significant under LN explaining 32-70% of the phenotypic variation amongst genotypes in NutE. Onset of senescence amongst genotypes was negatively correlated with the efficiency with which above-ground N at anthesis was remobilized to the grain under LN. It is concluded that delaying the onset of post-anthesis senescence may be an important trait for increasing grain yield of wheat grown under low N supply.     

Dry matter and nitrogen accumulation,partitioning, and retranslocation in safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) as affected by nitrogen fertilization

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) is a deep-rooted crop which can tolerate water stress and can be grown in rotation with other crop species. Nitrogen is one of the most important nutrients for the growth and development of safflower; however, the effect of N level on dry matter, accumulation, partitioning, and retranslocation has not been extensively studied. A 2-year field study was therefore conducted with the objective to determine the effect of N fertilization on crop phenology, dry matter, N accumulation, partitioning and retranslocation of safflower grown under rain-fed conditions. Three rates of N were used (0, 100, and 200 kg N ha⁻¹) and two hybrids (CW9048 and CW9050) of safflower were selected. The experiment was conducted during the 2003–2004 (2004) and 2004–2005 (2005) growing seasons on a calcareous sandy loam (Entisols, Orthents, Typic Xerorthent) at the experimental farm of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, in Northern Greece. During 2004 spring was quite mild with significant rainfall whereas during 2005 spring was hotter with lower rainfall. Our study found that N fertilization increased biomass at anthesis by an average of 24% and at maturity by an average of 25% compared with the control. Total above ground biomass increased after anthesis in both years, in both hybrids and for all fertilizer treatments. N fertilization increased the dry matter partitioning in leaves + stems and heads at anthesis and also in leaves + stems, seeds, and head vegetative components at maturity. Dry matter translocation was not affected by N fertilization but lower values were found during the second year. N content was affected by the fertilization treatments and increased in those plants treated with fertilizer compared with the controls. In addition, N fertilization increased N retranslocation from the vegetative parts of the plant to the seed, but it did not affect N gain. During the second year, which was drier, there were significant N losses but also greater N translocation efficiency and higher contribution of pre-anthesis N to seed. Seed yield was correlated with the dry matter and N translocation indices, and was higher for the fertilized plants, compared with the control. The present study indicates that N fertilization promoted the growth of safflower and increased the dry matter yield, N accumulation, translocation and seed yield under rain-fed conditions.     

Seed yielding ability of landraces of lucerne in Italy

Seed yield is of crucial importance for the marketing of lucerne varieties. Statistical records for farmers’ production of certified seed suggested a slightly higher seed‐yielding ability of Italian landraces over improved varieties (proportionately 0·052). The aims were to: (i) assess the variation among landraces, and compare the germplasm of landrace and improved varieties, for seed‐yielding ability; and (ii) investigate the relationships between seed yield, environment of origin and forage yield of the landraces. Thirteen farm landraces belonging to the seven commercial ecotypes of northern Italy and four improved varieties were evaluated for seed yield in the third cropping year and for herbage yield over twelve harvests. Landraces differed in seed yield and herbage yield (P < 0·05). Landrace material, compared with variety germplasm, showed a non‐significant trend towards higher seed yield (proportionately 0·047) and had similar herbage yield and plant density at the onset of the third cropping year. Seed yield of landraces was unrelated to forage yield and was associated with frequent mowing and earlier year of seed production on its farm of origin.     

不同小麦品种产量和氮素吸收利用的差异

为明确不同氮肥水平下不同小麦品种产量、氮素吸收和利用的差异,在大田条件下,以山东省主推的21个小麦品种为材料,研究了0、120、180、240和300kg·hm~(-2)共5个氮肥水平下不同小麦品种的产量、氮素利用率、氮素吸收效率和氮素利用效率等指标。结果表明,氮肥、品种及两者的互作效应显著影响冬小麦籽粒产量、氮素利用率、氮素吸收效率和利用效率;氮肥水平不同则品种间的氮效率差异程度不同。大部分供试品种的氮效率类型在不同氮肥水平下的聚类结果不一致,仅临麦4号、鲁原502、泰山28和山农25在各氮肥水平下的产量、氮素利用率均较高,可划为氮高效品种。氮高效品种达到高氮效率的途径不同,临麦4号通过高氮素吸收效率、泰山28通过高氮素利用效率、鲁原502和山农25通过氮素吸收效率和利用效率共同作用实现氮高效。由此可知,应在不同氮肥水平下对冬小麦品种进行产量和氮素利用率的综合评价,以筛选出适应不同地力环境的品种和与品种特性相适应的施肥技术;在氮高效品种的选育和推广中,应针对不同小麦品种的氮素吸收和利用特性进行鉴别和调控,才能最大程度挖掘和利用其高产、高效潜力,实现增产增效。     

Genetic variability and interrelationship among various morphological and quality traits in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.)

Evaluation of seed yield, morphological variability and nutritional quality of 27 germplasm lines of Chenopodium quinoa and 2 lines of C. berlandieri subsp. nuttalliae was carried out in subtropical North Indian conditions over a 2-year period. Seed yield ranged from 0.32 to 9.83 t/ha, higher yields being shown by four Chilean, two US, one Argentinian and one Bolivian line. Two lines of C. berlandieri subsp. nuttalliae exhibited high values for most of the morphological traits but were low yielding. Seed protein among various lines ranged from 12.55 to 21.02% with an average of 16.22 ± 0.47%. Seed carotenoid was in the range of 1.69–5.52 mg/kg, while leaf carotenoid was much higher and ranged from 230.23 to 669.57 mg/kg. Genetic gain as percent of mean was highest for dry weight/plant, followed by seed yield and inflorescence length. All morphological traits except days to flowering, days to maturity and inflorescence length exhibited significant positive association with seed yield. The association of leaf carotenoid with total chlorophyll and seed carotenoid was positive and highly significant. The path analysis revealed that 1000 seed weight had highest positive direct relationship with seed yield (1.057), followed by total chlorophyll (0.559) and branches/plant (0.520). Traits showing high negative direct effect on seed yield were leaf carotenoid (−0.749), seed size (−0.678) and days to flowering (−0.377). Total chlorophyll exerted strongest direct positive effect (0.722) on harvest index, followed by seed yield (0.505) and seed protein (0.245).     

Environmental effects on seed yield determination of irrigated peanut crops: Links with radiation use efficiency and crop growth rate

In Argentina, delayed sowing causes a decrease in seed yield and in radiation use efficiency (RUE) of peanut crops (Arachis hypogaea L.), but it is not known if RUE reduction is mainly due to reduced temperature during late reproductive stages or to a sink limitation promoted by decreased seed number in these conditions. We analyzed seed yield determination and RUE dynamics of two cultivars (Florman and ASEM) in four irrigated field experiments (Exp_n) grown at three sites and five contrasting sowing dates (between 17 October and 21 December) in three growing seasons. An additional field experiment was performed with widely spaced plants (i.e. with no interference among them) to evaluate the effect of peg removal on RUE and leaf carbon exchange rate (CER). Seasonal dynamics of mean air temperature and irradiance, biomass production (total and pods), and intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (IPAR) were followed. Seed yield and seed yield components (pod number, seeds per pod, seed number and seed weight) were determined at final harvest. Crop growth rate (CGR) and pod growth rate (PGR) were computed for growth phases of interest. RUE values for crops sown until 14 November were 1.89–1.98 g MJ⁻¹ IPAR, within the usual range. RUE decreased significantly for cv. Florman in the late sowing of Exp₁ (29 November) and for both cultivars in Exp₃ (21 December sowing). Across experiments, seed yield (4.5-fold variation relative to minimum) was strongly associated (r² = 0.87, P < 0.0001) with variations in seed number (3.5-fold variation relative to minimum), and to a lesser extent (r² ≤ 0.54, P ≤ 0.001) to variations in seed weight (1.9-fold variation relative to minimum). Seed number was positively related (P < 0.01) to CGR (r² = 0.66) and to PGR (r² = 0.72) during the R₃–R_6.5 phase (seed number determination window), while crop growth during the grain-filling phase (i.e. between R_6.5 and final harvest) was positively associated with grain number (r² = 0.80, P < 0.001). No association was found between RUE and mean air temperature, neither for the whole cycle nor for the phase between R_6.5 and final harvest, which showed the largest temperature variation (16.4–22.4 °C) across experiments. Use of mean minimum temperature records (range between 13.8 and 18.5 °C) did no improve the relationship. However, grain-filling phase RUE showed a positive (r² = 0.69, P = 0.003) linear response to seed number across experiments. This apparent sink limitation of source activity was consistent with the reduced RUE (from 2.73 to 1.42 g MJ⁻¹ IPAR) and reduced leaf CER at high irradiance (from ca. 30 to 15 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) for plants subjected to 75% peg removal.     

不同品质类型小麦优质高产群体氮效率的差异

为给小麦分类栽培措施的确定提供依据,于2000～2002年在扬州选用5个不同品质类型小麦品种,通过不同类型小麦氮肥运筹调控试验,研究了小麦优质高产群体与普通群体的氮效率差异.结果表明,同一品种不同群体类型间氮肥农学效率、氮肥吸收效率表现为强筋和中筋小麦优质高产群体高于普通群体,而弱筋小麦优质高产群体略低于普通群体;氮素利用效率则表现为强筋小麦优质高产群体低于普通群体,中筋小麦两者之间相近,弱筋小麦优质高产群体高于普通群体;不同群体的氮收获指数差异表现为优质高产群体与普通群体相比互有高低;不同类型专用小麦的各氮效率指标与籽粒产量及蛋白质含量之间表现出不同的相关性.     

水氮管理对不同氮效率水稻根系性状、氮素吸收利用及产量的影响

【目的】探究水氮管理措施对不同氮效率水稻根系构型、氮素吸收利用和产量形成的影响,以及根系性状特征与氮素吸收利用和产量关系。【方法】试验采用三因素裂裂区设计,主区为2个不同氮效率水稻品种德香4103(氮高效型)和宜香3724(氮低效型),裂区设置"常规灌溉"和"控制性交替灌溉"2种水分管理方式,裂裂区为SPAD指导施肥、优化施肥以及农民习惯施肥3种施氮模式,运用岭回归分析方法探究根系构型与氮素吸收利用和产量的关系。【结果】水稻抽穗期根系性状、产量、每穗粒数、千粒重及总颖花量均存在显著的基因型差异。氮高效品种德香4103每穗粒数多,群体库容量大,产量较氮低效品种宜香3724高0.24%~11.31%;控制性交替灌溉有利于水稻千粒重的增长,常规灌溉则对水稻有效穗数、每穗粒数及群体颖花量提高更为有利;SPAD指导施肥和优化施肥处理能够提高水稻有效穗数和每穗粒数,扩大群体颖花量以保证其对农民习惯施肥的产量优势;由于水氮互作效应的存在,控制性交替灌溉下施氮处理与空白处理水稻千粒重的差距比常规灌溉的大幅降低,使得控制性交替灌溉下施用氮肥的增产效果更佳。德香4103的氮肥生理利用率较宜香3724平均高8.69%,常规灌溉下水稻氮积累量较高,控制性交替灌溉下氮肥回收率、农学利用率、生理利用率均较优;与农民习惯施肥处理相比,SPAD指导施肥与优化施肥模式更有利于水稻氮素吸收利用效率的提高。拔节期、抽穗期和成熟期水稻根系构型与产量岭回归方程的决定系数范围为0.4198~0.9028,其中,抽穗期根系性状与产量关系最为密切,氮高效和氮低效品种的决定系数均超过0.9。在拔节期,水稻细分枝根长对产量影响最大;在抽穗期,氮高效和氮低效品种存在差异,前者是粗分枝根长,后者是细分枝根表面积对产量影响最大;在成熟期,不定根长与产量关系最为密切。水稻抽穗期根系构型对氮积累量变化的解释程度较高,岭回归方程决定系数均接近0.7。就水氮管理措施而言,氮高效和氮低效水稻均应采用常规灌溉配套SPAD指导施肥或控制性交替灌溉结合优化施肥来实现产量的提高。【结论】水稻抽穗期根系构型与产量、氮积累量关系密切,采用合理的水氮管理措施能够实现水稻产量和氮素吸收利用效率的同步提高。     

Cultivar and seasonal effects on the contribution of pre-anthesis assimilates to safflower yield

In crops grown under Mediterranean environments, translocation of pre-anthesis assimilates to the seed is of great importance for seed growth, because hot and dry conditions during the seed filling period diminish photosynthesis and crop nitrogen uptake. This field study was conducted to assess the genetic and seasonal variation in the amount of pre-anthesis dry matter and nitrogen accumulated and translocated to seed by safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) plants, and the possible N losses occurring between anthesis and maturity. Ten genotypes, 4 hybrids and 6 open pollinated cultivars, were grown for 2 growing seasons without irrigation, on a silty clay (Typic Xerorthent) soil. The proportion of dry matter and N content at anthesis that was translocated to seed differed among genotypes and ranged from 14.9 to 39.6 and from 24.8–59.3%, respectively. Genotypic differences in dry matter and N translocation were mainly associated with dry matter and N accumulated during the vegetative growth of the plants. Greater amounts of dry matter and N content at anthesis resulted in a greater dry matter and N translocation to seed during the filling period. When the N contents of aboveground plant parts at anthesis and maturity were compared, both gains and losses were observed, and were mainly related to the sink size. No N losses were detected when yield was high. When yield was low, N losses depended on N content at anthesis; high N content resulted in N losses, otherwise no N losses were observed. The contribution of pre-anthesis accumulated reserves to seed weight ranged from 64.7 to 92.2%, indicating the importance of pre-anthesis storage of assimilates for attaining high safflower yield.     

部分春性和半冬性小麦品种氮效率差异分析

为了解小麦冬春性与氮素利用的关系,在大田条件下,以江苏省主栽的15个小麦品种为材料,比较了半冬性和春性小麦的氮效率差异。结果表明,相同施氮条件下,半冬性小麦的平均氮肥吸收效率(NUEa)和氮肥生产效率(NGPE)分别比春性小麦高12.19%和9.64%,差异均达显著水平。其中,NUEa和NGPE最高的半冬性小麦品种均为济麦22,春性小麦两个指标最高的品种均为扬麦15。半冬性小麦的平均氮肥表观利用率(NUR)、氮肥农学效率(NAE)、氮素生理效率(NPE)及氮收获指数亦高于春性小麦,但差异均不显著。半冬性或春性类型小麦中各指标都存在氮高效和氮低效的品种,且品种间差异均极显著;不同品种氮效率高或低的机制不同,使得对氮肥的吸收、利用、转运的能力存在差异,生产中应根据不同品种氮效率机制特点采用不同的施肥应对策略。     

The effects of nitrogen and iron fertilization on growth,yield and fertilizer use efficiency of soybean in a Mediterranean-type soil

Poor seed yield of soybean in Mediterranean-type environments may result from insufficient iron (Fe) uptake and poor biological nitrogen (N) fixation due to high bicarbonate and pH in soils. This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of N and Fe fertilization on growth and yield of double cropped soybean (cv. SA 88, MG III) in a Mediterranean-type environment in Turkey during 2003 and 2004. The soil of the experimental plots was a Vertisol with 176 g CaCO₃ kg⁻¹ and pH 7.7 and 17 g organic matter kg⁻¹ soil. Soybean seeds were inoculated prior to planting with commercial peat inoculants. N fertilizer rates were 0, 40, 80, and 120 kg N ha⁻¹ of which half was applied before planting and the other half at full blooming stage (R2). Fe fertilizer rates were 0, 200 and 400 g Fe EDTA (5.5% Fe and 2% EDTA) ha⁻¹. It was sprayed as two equal portions at two trifoliate (V2) and at five trifoliate stages (V5). Plants were sampled at flower initiation (R1), at full pod (R4) and at full seed (R6) stages. Application of starter N increased biomass and leaf area index at R1 stage whereas Fe fertilization did not affect early growth parameters. N application continued to have a positive effect on growth parameters at later stages and on seed yield. Fe fertilization increased growth parameters at R4 and R6 stages, and final seed yield in both years. This study demonstrated an interactive effect of N and Fe fertilization on growth and yield of soybean in the soil having high bicarbonate and pH. There was a positive interaction between N and Fe at the N rates up to 80 kg N ha⁻¹. However, further increase in N rate produced a negative interaction. Fertilization of soybean with 80 kg N ha⁻¹ and 400 g Fe ha⁻¹ resulted in the highest seed yield in both years. We concluded that application of starter and top dressed N in combination with two split FeEDTA fertilization can be beneficial to improve early growth and final yield of inoculated soybean in Mediterranean-type soils.     

Canopy reflectance in two castor bean varieties (Ricinus communis L.) for growth assessment and yield prediction on coastal saline land of Yancheng District, China

A field experiment was conducted in 2007-2009 in coastal saline regions of Yancheng city in Jiangsu province of China (120°13′E, 33°38′N). The experiment was to investigate relationships among canopy spectral reflectance, canopy chlorophyll density (CCD), leaf area index (LAI), and yield of two Chinese castor varieties (Zi Bi var. and Yun Bi var.) across four N fertilizer rates of 0, 90, 180, and 360 kg N ha⁻¹. These N rates were used to generate a wide range of difference in canopy structure and seed yield. Measurements of canopy reflectance were made throughout the growing season using a hand-held spectroradiometer. Samples for CCD and LAI were obtained on days that reflectance measurements were made. Fifteen hyperspectral reflectance indices were calculated. Canopy spectral characteristics were heavily influenced by saline soil background in the rapid growing period (RGP), thus hyperspectral data obtained in this period were not suited for reflecting castor growth condition or predicting final yield. CCD increased linearly with most reflectance indices in the full coverage period (FCP) and senescent period (SP) for the two castor varieties, whereas LAI did not. Most of reflectance indices were significantly correlated with yield of two varieties in different growing periods. The OSAVI model provided the best yield prediction for Zi Bi var. with predicted values very close to observed ones (R² = 0.799), and the mSRVI705 model was well used for Yun Bi var. yield estimation (R² = 0.759). These results indicate that the hyperspectral data measured at appropriate time could be well used for castor yield estimation.     

Improving crop yield and N uptake with long-term straw retention in two contrasting soil types

Retention and/or reincorporation of plant residues increases soil organic nitrogen (N) levels over the long-term is associated with increased crop yields. There is still uncertainty, however, about the interaction between crop residue (straw) retention and N fertilizer rates and sources. The objective of the study was to assess the influence of straw management (straw removed [S_Rem] and straw retained [S_Ret]), N fertilizer rate (0, 25, 50 and 75 kg N ha⁻¹) and N source (urea and polymer-coated urea [called ESN]) under conventional tillage on seed yield, straw yield, total N uptake in seed + straw and N balance sheet. Field experiments with barley monoculture (1983-1996), and wheat/barley-canola-triticale-pea rotation (1997-2009) were conducted on two contrasting soil types (Gray Luvisol [Typic Haplocryalf] loam soil at Breton; Black Chernozem [Albic Argicryoll] silty clay loam at Ellerslie) in north-central Alberta, Canada. On the average, S_Ret produced greater seed yield (by 205-220 kg ha⁻¹), straw yield (by 154-160 kg ha⁻¹) and total N uptake in seed + straw (by 5.2 kg N ha⁻¹) than S_Rem in almost all cases in both periods at Ellerslie, and only in the 1997-2009 period at Breton (by 102 kg seed ha⁻¹, 196 kg straw ha⁻¹ and by 3.7 kg N ha⁻¹) for both N sources. There was generally a considerable increase in seed yield, straw yield and total N uptake in seed + straw from applied N up to 75 kg N ha⁻¹ rate for both N sources at both sites and more so at Breton, but the response to applied N decreased with increasing N rate. The ESN was superior to urea in increasing seed yield (by 109 kg ha⁻¹), straw yield (by 80 kg ha⁻¹) and total N uptake in seed + straw (by 2.4 kg N ha⁻¹) in the 1983-1996 period at Breton (mainly at the 25 and 50 kg N ha⁻¹ rates). But, urea produced greater straw yield (by 95 kg ha⁻¹) and total N uptake in seed + straw (by 3.3 kg N ha⁻¹) than ESN in the 1983-1996 period at Ellerslie. The N balance sheets over the 1983-2009 study duration indicated large amounts of applied N unaccounted for (ranged from 740 to 1518 kg N ha⁻¹ at Breton and from 696 to 1334 kg N ha⁻¹ at Ellerslie), suggesting a great potential for N loss from the soil-plant system through denitrification and/or nitrate leaching, and from the soil mineral N pool by N immobilization. In conclusion, the findings suggest that long-term retention of crop residue may gradually improve soil productivity. The effectiveness of N source varied with soil type.     

Yield response of corn to irrigation and nitrogen fertilization in a Mediterranean environment

Productivity and resource-use efficiency in corn (Zea mays L.) are crucial issues in sustainable agriculture, especially in high-demand resource crops such as corn. The aims of this research were to compare irrigation scheduling and nitrogen fertilization rates in corn, evaluating yield, water (WUE), irrigation water (IRRWUE) and nitrogen use (NUE) efficiencies. A 2-year field experiment was carried out in a Mediterranean coastal area of Central Italy (175 mm of rainfall in the corn-growing period) and corn was subjected to three irrigation levels (rainfed and supply at 50 and 100% of crop evapotranspiration, ETc) in interaction with three nitrogen fertilization levels (not fertilized, 15 and 30 g (N) m⁻²). The results indicated a large yearly variability, mainly due to a rainfall event at the silking stage in the first year; a significant irrigation effect was observed for all the variables under study, except for plant population. Nitrogen rates affected grain yield plant⁻¹ and ear⁻¹, grain and biomass yield, HI, WUE, IRRWUE and NUE, with significant differences between non-fertilized and the two fertilized treatments (15 and 30 g (N) m⁻²). Furthermore, deficit irrigation (50% of ETc) was to a large degree equal to 100% of the ETc irrigation regime. A significant interaction “N × I” was observed for grain yield and WUE. The effect of nitrogen availability was amplified at the maximum irrigation water regime. The relationships between grain yield and evapotranspiration showed basal ET, the amount necessary to start producing grain, of about 63 mm in the first and 206 mm in the second year. Rainfed crop depleted most of the water in the 0–0.6 m soil depth range, while irrigated scenarios absorbed soil water within the profile to a depth of 1.0 m. Corn in a Mediterranean area can be cultivated with acceptable yields while saving irrigation water and reducing nitrogen supply and also exploiting the positive interaction between these two factors, so maximizing resource-use efficiency.     

Sulfur fertilization improves nitrogen use efficiency in wheat by increasing nitrogen uptake

Nitrogen (N) fertilization plays a central role for improving yield in wheat and high N use efficiency (NUE) is desired to protect ground and surface waters. Several studies showed that sulfur (S) fertilization may increase NUE, but no attempts have been made to explain whether this increase is due to greater recovery efficiency (RE), an enhanced internal efficiency (IE) or by an improvement of both efficiencies. The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of different N and S fertilizer rates, and their interaction on N uptake, its partition at maturity, NUE and its main components. Field experiments were carried out during two consecutive growing seasons in the Argentinean Pampas using a single bread-wheat genotype grown under different combinations of N and S fertilizer rates. Additional experiments were performed in farmer fields using N and S fertilization evaluating different genotypes in order to analyze the components of NUE in other environmental conditions. Plant N uptake increased linearly in response to N addition until rates of ca. 80 kg N ha⁻¹. Sulfur addition showed no effect at the lowest N fertilizer rate, but N uptake was increased when S was applied at the highest N rate, revealing a synergism between both nutrients. At the lowest S rate RE was 42%, and increased to 70% when S fertilizer was added. No changes in IE in response to S fertilization were observed. These results were also observed in farmer field experiments, in genotypes that showed different IE. This study showed that S addition increased NUE mainly by increasing the N recovery from the soil. Thus, the concurrent management of N and S is important for reducing the potential pollution of residual soil nitrate by increasing N recovery from the soil while sustaining high nitrogen use efficiency.     

Responses of Seed Yield and Quality to Nitrogen Application Levels in Two Oilseed Rape (Brassica napus L.) Varieties Differing in Nitrogen Efficiency

Abstract

The relationship between nitrogen efficiency (NE), defined as seed yield per unit nitrogen (N) application, and seed quality was examined in two oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) varieties at 5 N application levels, 0.6, 3, 6, 12, 15 mmol L?¹, N₁, N₂, N₃, N₄ and N₅, respectively. Seed yield, oil yield and protein content were increased with the increase in N application level, but NE and oil content were decreased, and the fatty acid composition in seed was hardly changed. Analysis of seven fatty acids revealed aslight decrease in the contents of erucic acid and arachidonic acid with the increase in N application level, but no obvious change in the contents of palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid and linolenic acid. Compared with the low NE variety H29, the seed yield and contents of erucic acid and arachidonic acid in the high NE variety bin270 were more markedly increased with the increase in N application level, and the oil content was hardly changed. The seed yield, oilcontent and oil yield were higher in the high NE variety than in the low NE variety at all 5 N application levels. There were no significant differences in protein, palmitic acid, stearic acid and oleic acid contents between the varieties at any of the 5 N application levels, but there were slight differences in the linoleic acid and linolenic acid contents between the two varieties. In brief, N application improved oil yield more greatly in the high NE variety than in the low NE variety, but hardly affected the fatty acid composition. Therefore, the seed quality and oil content of oilseed rape may not be decreased by breeding of a high NE variety with a high N absorption efficiency and high N use efficiency.     

Ecophysiological traits in maize hybrids and their parental inbred lines: Phenotyping of responses to contrasting nitrogen supply levels

Maize (Zea mays L.) breeding based primarily on final grain yield has been successful in improving this trait since the introduction of hybrids. Contrarily, understanding of the variation in ecophysiological processes responsible of this improvement is limited, especially between parental inbred lines and their hybrids. This limitation may hinder future progress in genetic gain, especially in environments where heritability estimation is reduced because grain yield is severely affected by abiotic stresses. The objective of this study was to analyze the genotypic variation between inbred lines and derived hybrids in the physiological determinants of maize grain yield at the crop level, and how differences among hybrids and parental inbreds may effect contrasting responses to N stress. Special emphasis was given to biomass production and partitioning during the critical period for kernel number determination. Phenotyping included the evaluation of 26 morpho-physiological attributes for 6 maize inbred lines and 12 derived hybrids, cropped in the field at contrasting N supply levels (N₀: no N added; N₄₀₀: 400 kg N ha⁻¹ applied as urea) during three growing seasons. Tested genotypes differed in the response to reduce N supply for most measured traits. Grain yield was always larger for hybrids than for inbreds, but N deficiency affected the former more than the latter (average reduction in grain yield of 40% for hybrids and of 24% for inbreds). We also found (i) a common pattern across genotypes and N levels for the response of kernel number per plant to plant growth rate during the critical period, (ii) a reduced apical ear reproductive capacity (i.e., kernel set per unit of ear growth rate) of inbreds as compared to hybrids, (iii) similar RUE during the critical period and N absorption at maturity at low N levels for both groups of genotypes, but enhanced RUE and N absorption of hybrids at high N supply levels, and (iv) an improved N utilization efficiency of hybrids across all levels of N supply. Results are indicative of a more efficient use of absorbed N by hybrids than by parental inbreds. Larger grain yield of hybrids than of inbreds at N₀ was associated to (i) enhanced dry matter accumulation due to improved light interception during the life cycle and (ii) enhanced biomass partitioning to the grain.     

Genotypic variation in nitrogen use efficiency in medium- and long-duration rice

A field experiment was conducted in the dry season at Los Baños, Philippines, to assess the differences in grain yield and N utilization of 10 medium-duration (119±4 days after seeding [DAS]) genotypes and 10 long-duration (130±4 DAS) ones with varying acquisition and usage of soil and fertilizer N. Significant differences among genotypes were observed in grain yield and N uptake, efficiency and partitioning parameters (physiological N use efficiency [PNUE], agronomic N use efficiency [ANUE], apparent recovery [AR], partial factor productivity of applied N [PFP_N], N productivity index [NPI], and N harvest index [NHI]). The N-efficient genotypes that produced high grain yield at both low and high levels of N were IR54790-B-B-38, BG380-2, BG90-2 (medium-duration), and IR3932-182-2-3-3-2, IR54853-B-B-318, and IR29723-88-2-3-3 (long-duration). Inefficient genotypes that produced low yields at low N levels but responded well to N application were IR58125-B-B-42, IR49457-33-1-2-2-2, and BG34-8 (medium-duration), and IR8192-200-3-3-1-1, IR21848-65-3-2-2, and PR106 (long-duration). IR20 (medium) and Palawan (long-duration) were N-inferior genotypes giving low yields at both low and high N levels. Increase in grain yield was highly correlated with N uptake (r²=0.75**). The grain yield-N uptake relationship for individual genotypes indicated significant differences in slope and in the yield obtained with soil N (GY₀). Differences in GY₀ were due to genotypic variation in N uptake and efficiency of use. NHI was related to both N uptake and use efficiency. NPI, which integrated both GY₀ and PNUE, provided a better ranking of genotypes. The performance of efficient and inefficient genotypes over a range of soil and fertilizer N supply was consistent over three seasons of trials.