Distribution and diversity of wildlife in northern Kenya in relation to livestock and permanent water points

Arid rangelands host a variety of drought-tolerant wildlife species, many of them requiring conservation efforts for the survival of their populations. The development of drinking water sources for people and livestock forms one of the main development interventions in these rangelands. However, the impact of availability of permanent drinking water on wildlife remains unknown. In this study we analyzed the distribution of wildlife and livestock in northern Kenya in relation to distance to permanent water. Livestock were concentrated in areas close to permanent water, while wildlife were frequently farther away from water; their distributions were inversely correlated. In addition, wildlife assemblages were more diverse farther from water. These results suggest that livestock and human activities related to water points negatively affect the distribution of wildlife.     

Savanna herbivore dynamics in a livestock-dominated landscape: I. Dependence on land use, rainfall, density, and time

Ecosystem processes in African savannas can be better conserved if management is based on a mechanistic understanding of wildlife dynamics in livestock-dominated landscapes. For Laikipia District, a non-protected savanna region in northern Kenya, we used spatially explicit estimates of density to characterize factors influencing the dynamics of large herbivores on three land-use types: commercial ranches that favor wildlife, communal ‘group ranches’ practicing pastoralism, and the remainder (‘transitional’ properties). For 21-year time series of nine wild and two domestic species, linear model selection was used to ascribe between 45% (Grant’s gazelle) and 95% (plains zebra) of observed variation in biomass density to land use, rainfall-dependence, density-dependence, and trends over time.Strongly opposing patterns of variation across the landscape in wildlife and livestock densities affirmed the primacy of land use among factors influencing wildlife abundance in non-protected areas. Rainfall limited densities of only the dominant grazing species throughout the monitoring period (plains zebra and cattle), and of most other species while their densities were high. Regulating effects of density were detected only for the dominant wild grazing and browsing species (zebra and giraffe). All but two wild species (zebra and Grant’s gazelle) declined on at least one land-use type, for reasons that varied among land uses.Where favored, diverse and abundant wild herbivores (mean of 1.7 t km⁻² on pro-wildlife ranches) can thrive even when sharing the landscape with a slightly higher biomass density of livestock (mean of 2.7 t km⁻²). Where not favored, only a few resilient wild species (e.g. gazelles and plains zebra) persist with high densities of livestock (mean of 4.6 t km⁻² on transitional ranches). Maintaining higher wild species diversity in the landscape will depend on the creation of a network of unfenced conservation areas in which livestock densities are persistently low or zero, which are sufficiently large to act as ‘sources’ of wild species that are prone to displacement by humans and livestock, and which generate benefits to community members that exceed opportunity costs.     

The impact of subdivision and sedentarization of pastoral lands on wildlife in an African savanna ecosystem

This study looks at the impact of subdivision and sedentarization of pastoral lands on wildlife numbers and production in a savanna ecosystem of southern Kenya. The study uses aerial counts over a period of 33 years to compare changes in wildlife populations on two adjacent and ecologically similar Maasai group ranches. During the period under study, one group ranch was subdivided and settled. The other remained communally owned under shifting seasonal use. Wildlife populations decreased sharply on the privatized ranch following subdivision and increased steadily on the adjacent ranch where pastoralists continued mobile pastoralism. The results of multivariate analysis show that sedentarization and settlement distribution accounts for wildlife declines on the subdivided ranch. Both the direct displacement of wildlife and the reduction in grass production following a switch from seasonal to permanent grazing associated with sedentarization are discussed as causes of wildlife loss. Given the demand for title deeds among pastoralists to counter land losses, the resulting sedentarization is likely to become the biggest threat to wildlife in the East African savannas.     

The importance of nutrient hot-spots in the conservation and management of large wild mammalian herbivores in semi-arid savannas

Extensive studies in the Serengeti showed a strong link between patchy herbivory and forage quality, and the factors that determine forage patch selection at different scales have been evaluated in various models. The purpose of this study was to examine to what extent favoured forage patches in the Lowveld of South Africa are determined by forage quality and how important these are as forage resources. Understanding the factors that determine herbivore distribution will provide insights into how the utilization of forage by herbivores affects and is influenced by the ecosystem and thereby improve our abilities to conserve and manage these systems. The Kruger National Park is a large wildlife conservation area, with stratified rainfall and soil nutrient patterns. Tuft utilization and number of faecal deposits were used to determine favoured forage patches within these stratifications. On the low-nutrient granites, the use of grass tufts on the crests of hillslopes was about a quarter that on sodic sites, and a third of that of termite mounds. On the high-nutrient basalts, utilization of crests was about a third of that of termite mounds and about a quarter of the utilization of sodic sites in the wet and growth season, but towards the end of the dry season all patches were utilized to a similar extent. On sodic sites, shorter grass grazers accounted for almost ten times more faecal deposits than other species, although there was evidence of all the other large herbivore groups also utilizing these sites. The foliar nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations from termite mounds and sodic patches were up to twice that found on the crests in the wet season, especially on the granites, indicating that forage quality may indeed play an important role in determining favoured forage patches. Furthermore, only the patches on the sodic sites and termite mounds produced foliage of sufficient quality to support reproduction and maintenance of body condition. These patches thus form key resource areas that determine animal condition and hence dry season survival. These findings have important management consequences: firstly in predicting the number of animals that may be supported by an area; secondly, because these nutrient hot-spots are so intensely utilized by herbivores, they will be the first to show degradation, and monitoring programs should thus include these areas. Appropriate monitoring designs will detect degradation in these areas in time to take appropriate management actions that would avoid irreversible system changes.     

Land degradation and livestock production in Zimbabwe's communal areas

This paper considers evidence of land degradation and its impact on livestock production systems in the communal areas of southern Zimbabwe. Various measures of rangeland degradation, using both primary and secondary production indicators, are examined. An apparent contradiction emerges between the high observed levels of soil erosion and the lack of impact on livestock production, as measured by population density trends, cattle production parameters, cumulative stocking levels and extraction rates. Farmers' observations of land degradation processes support the quantitative data. A possible resolution of the contradiction lies in an assessment of the spatial and temporal dimensions of degradation patterns; this points to the fact that current erosion is concentrated in areas that are not key grazing resources for cattle. The analysis suggests an agenda for degradation research that concentrates on evaluating the time span over which economic impacts of soil erosion are felt and assessing the spatial pattern of soil loss, with a special focus on key grazing resource patches.     

基于草原生态保护的牧区水土资源配置模式

为科学保护草原生态,该文在分析牧区面临形势与挑战的基础上,针对"以需定供"配置模式不适应牧区发展需求的问题,提出"水-土-草-畜"的牧区水土资源配置模式。该模式以保护草原生态系统良性发展为前提,以最严格水资源管理制度所确定的区域用水总量为控制指标,以水资源、土地资源和草地资源承载能力为底线,以牧区"水-土-草-畜"平衡为准则,合理配置牧区水土资源,确定适宜的农牧业发展规模。依据该模式推算中国牧区2030年适宜农牧业灌溉面积为936.1万hm2,适宜牲畜饲养量为2.88亿羊单位,在灌溉人工草地和天然草原耦合利用条件下天然草原开发利用达到平衡。牧区"水-土-草-畜"配置模式为实现草原地区生态环境与经济社会协调可持续发展提供了一种新思路。     

考虑饲草料质量的家庭牧场水土草畜平衡计算方法与应用

家庭牧场作为牧区的基本生产单元，开展家庭牧场水土草畜平衡计算合理确定灌溉人工草地和牲畜饲养规模，对促进水资源可持续利用和维护草地生态安全具有实际管理意义。该研究针对牧区具体管理单元水土草畜平衡调控方法缺乏的问题，同时考虑了不同种类饲草料质量的差别，提出了考虑饲草料质量的家庭牧场水土草畜平衡计算方法，以内蒙古自治区鄂托克前旗典型家庭牧场为例，计算结果表明家庭牧场现状灌溉人工草地和牲畜均处于轻度超载状态，水资源超载率为6.05%，考虑饲草料质量前后牲畜超载率分别为12.98%和5.38%。针对现状平衡状况提出了调整种植结构和灌溉形式组合的8套优化调控方案，经不同方案可供水量变化以及可承载的灌溉人工草地和牲畜饲养规模对比分析，表明种植质量更高的饲草料、采用更节水的灌溉形式可明显提升水资源对灌溉人工草地和饲草资源对牲畜的承载能力，为给家庭牧场水资源和天然草地更多的修养生息空间，建议家庭牧场保持现有人工草地面积不增加，将紫花苜蓿灌溉形式调整为地下滴灌。将燕麦灌溉形式调整为滴灌时，核减牲畜至464羊单位维持家庭牧场水土草畜平衡；将固定式喷灌燕麦调整为滴灌玉米或地下滴灌紫花苜蓿，虽计算的适宜牲畜高于现状牲畜饲养量，但仍保持现有牲畜饲养规模。提出的计算方法可为牧区水土草畜平衡计算与管理提供一种新的思路。     

Do artificial waterholes influence the way herbivores use the landscape? Herbivore distribution patterns around rivers and artificial surface water sources in a large African savanna park

It has been argued that the wide-scale provision of artificial surface water in semi-arid savannas may result in homogenisation of foraging regimes, compromising biodiversity and ecosystem resilience. This is the first landscape-scale study investigating to what degree artificial waterholes and natural rivers influence the distribution of large herbivores, and hence foraging patterns, in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. This is explored by examining consistencies within and differences between distribution patterns of herbivore feeding groups on different geologies. Seven years of dry season aerial census data of thirteen large herbivores were analysed in a GIS. It was found that different herbivores exhibit different distribution patterns around rivers and waterholes. It was found that most grazer species were associated with artificial waterholes, whereas browsers and mixed feeders were indifferent to waterholes and were associated with the main rivers. This has important management implications for artificial water provision in the KNP and potentially for other semi-arid African savanna conservation areas. Man-made waterholes are therefore features in the landscape that can change the distribution of herbivores, even in a landscape where natural water is available, transforming patterns of landscape use. Furthermore, it was also found that the underlying geology interacts with water distribution in shaping herbivore distributions, with artificial waterholes and rivers acting as stronger nodes of herbivore activity on nutrient-rich basaltic soils than nutrient-poor granitic soils. The results from this paper may be useful for designing surface water policies and management plans for Kruger and other savanna reserves in Africa in order to maximise biodiversity conservation.     

Sagebrush conversion projects: An element of contemporary environmental change in the Western United States

Over 40 million ha of the western United States support a vegetative cover of big sagebrush, Artemisia tridentata. The meagre grass understory beneath the woody shrubs offers scant forage for range cattle, the primary economic product of the region. In order to improve grass supplies, both government agencies and private ranchers have undertaken a continuing programme of shrub eradication and grass planting. Various problems arise from this transformation of brushlands into grasslands, including questions of accelerated erosion, herbicide residues, and declining wildlife populations. If planned to produce a heterogeneous plant cover, however, sagebrush conversion projects could improve habitat for both domestic livestock and wildlife, while also maintaining a healthy range ecosystem.     

Determination of altosid insect growth regulator in waters, soils, plants, and animals by gas-liquid chromatography.

Residues of isopropyl (2E,4E)-11-methoxy-3,7,11-trimethyl-2,4-dodecadienoate (Altosid) insect growth regulator are determined in waters, soils, plants, milk, eggs, fish, shellfish, poultry and cattle tissues, blood, urine, and feces. Acetonitrile is the primary extraction solvent for all samples. Residues are extracted by high-speed blending followed by vacuum filtration. Fatty extracts are subjected to cold-temperature precipitation and filtration. Samples are cleaned up by petroleum ether partitioning and Florisil and neutral alumina chromatography. The concentrated eluants are analyzed by gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) on columns of differing polarity, using hydrogen flame ionization detectors. The identity of suspected residues is confirmed by additional GLC and by mass fragmentography. The lower limits of detection were: water samples, 0.0004-0.001 ppm; soils, blood, and urine, 0.001 ppm; forage grasses, forage legumes, and rice foliage, 0.005 ppm; and milk, eggs, fish, shellfish, poultry and cattle tissues, and feces, 0.010 ppm.     

Savanna herbivore dynamics in a livestock-dominated landscape. II: Ecological, conservation, and management implications of predator restoration

Conserving African wildlife in human-occupied landscapes requires management intervention that is guided by a mechanistic understanding of how anthropogenic factors influence large-scale ecological processes. In Laikipia District, a dry savanna region in northern Kenya where wildlife share the landscape with humans and livestock, we examined why five of nine wild ungulate species suffered protracted declines on properties receiving the greatest conservation investment. Of 10 alternative causes examined, only an increase in predation, interacting with brief periods of high and low rainfall, was consistent with the timing, synchrony, duration and species composition of observed ungulate declines.The principal factor causing predation to increase was a shift in land use from cattle ranching, under which predators and plains zebras were severely suppressed, to wildlife conservation and ecotourism. This prompted a 5-fold increase in plains zebra abundance, and created a demand for living predators. Plains zebras ultimately comprised more than half the available prey biomass, and supported a substantial predator community, but were not limited by predators. We infer that increasing predation pressure caused predator-susceptible prey species to decline, via mechanisms that included apparent competition.Herbivore dynamics in Laikipia shared features with previously reported responses by prey communities to predator manipulation in Kruger and Serengeti National Parks. All featured one or a few numerically dominant herbivore species, which were primarily limited by rainfall and density, supporting a predator community that in turn limited the abundance of other prey species. In each case, predation had a profound effect, but on only a subset of prey species, reducing the evenness component of prey diversity.The presence of cattle in the landscape may affect predator-prey dynamics in both direct and indirect ways, depending on rainfall. In extreme years (floods or drought), episodic die-offs temporarily subsidize scavenging predators. In low rainfall years, competition between plains zebras and cattle, which negligibly support predators, may indirectly limit predator carrying capacity. Consequently, removal of cattle may favor not only zebras, but also their predators, and further depress predator-susceptible prey species.     

干旱区灌溉饲草料地载畜量计算方法

水分是制约干旱区荒漠草原草畜平衡管理的最关键因子,解决这一问题的关键在于如何合理实现"以水定草,以草定畜,实现水草畜平衡"的思路。鉴于传统理论载畜量计算方法在产草量估测和牲畜采食量计算中存在较大误差,该文从水量平衡角度出发,提出了基于水草畜平衡的理论载畜量计算方法,以内蒙古中部达尔罕茂明安联合旗为研究区域,根据不同降水量和灌溉水量条件下的水分生产率曲线,对1 a生优质牧草青贮玉米进行估产,在分析不同体质量下绵羊采食和饮水规律的基础上,分别计算出草量载畜量和水量载畜量,以此确定理论载畜量。计算结果表明,在丰水年情景,该文方法比传统方法多6只羊/万m2,有利于提高畜牧业的经济效益;在枯水年情景,该文方法比传统方法少7只羊/万m2,有利于保护草原生态,避免草原退化。该文提出的载畜量计算方法适用于达茂旗荒漠草原,对牧区畜牧业的可持续发展和草原生态环境保护具有重要的指导作用。     

Community, lions, livestock and money: A spatial and social analysis of attitudes to wildlife and the conservation value of tourism in a human–carnivore conflict in Botswana

We quantified livestock (cattle, shoats, horses and donkeys) losses to lions (Panthera leo) and attitudes to lions, livestock losses and tourism among livestock owners, village residents and tourism workers around Makgadikgadi Pans National Park in Botswana. Losses were not correlated with the size or structure of livestock enclosures, numbers of dogs or herders. Rather losses increased with the amount of livestock owned. Most were stray animals preyed upon at night. Attitudes to wildlife, conservation and lions were also not consistently distributed within the society we studied. Negative attitudes to lions were almost ubiquitous among cattleposts but less widespread among people living in the more urbanized society of villages or among people working in tourism.Although four tourist camps were operating in the area, benefits from these operations were largely limited to employees. Despite considerable sums of money being paid to Botswana by local tourist facilities few respondents viewed tourism as valuable and most felt that the government and not they or their community was the main beneficiary of tourism. Tourism employees made up a small sub-section of the adult population drawn predominately from larger villages while the costs of livestock losses were spread among cattleposts near the park boundary. These same cattlepost respondents were not prepared to improve stock care to protect livestock, but indicated a willingness to kill lions instead. If tourism is to play a role in reducing human–wildlife conflict, communities must not be regarded as homogenous entities into which to distribute benefits evenly. Benefits might usefully be distributed in relation to the costs of coexisting with wildlife or used as incentives to better protect livestock or other human resources.     

Conservation of large mammals in the Republic of Mali

Populations of large wild mammals exist in one national park and several reserves and protected forest areas in Mali. In addition some wildlife survivers in areas, in the south where onchocerciasis and trypanosomiasis, and in the north lack of available water, prevent human settlement.The ares of present-day Mali has been populated by a succession of relatively advanced African states during the past 1500 years, who have influenced the vegetation and wildlife.An account of the present status of large mammals is given, based on survey carried out in 1972–1974. Of particular interest are a population of giant eland (Taurotragus derbianus) in the Mandigue mountains populationsof giraffe (Giraffa cameloprdalis) in the Baoulé National Park and northern sahel, and populations of addax (Addax nasomaculatus) and oryx (Oryx dammah) in the desert.The development of the livestock industry in the north threatens wildlife in all but the driest areas. In the south there are plans to eradicate the insect vectors of onchocerciasis and trypanosomiasis; the human settlement of the land which would thus be made availablefor agriculture poses as a severe threat to wildlife in these areas.     

皇甫川流域水土保持与畜牧业发展的研究——内蒙准格尔旗五分地沟小流域水保效益与发展畜牧业关系的分析

该文从水土保持与发展畜牧业协调利用的角度,通过对准格尔旗五分地沟小流域水土保持效益与发展畜牧业关系的分析,论述了该流域发展畜牧业生产的途径和措施,为整个皇甫川流域合理、有效地利用饲草资源,持续稳定地发展畜牧业提供了科学依据。     

Vegetation,Wildlife, and Livestock Responses to Planned Grazing Management in an African Pastoral Landscape

Rangelands are vital for wildlife conservation and socio‐economic well‐being, but many face widespread degradation because in part of poor grazing management practices. Planned grazing management, typically involving time‐controlled rotational livestock grazing, is widely touted as a tool for promoting sustainable rangelands. However, real‐world assessments of its efficacy have been lacking in communal pastoral landscapes globally, and especially in Africa. We performed landscape‐scale assessment of the effects of planned grazing on selected vegetation, wildlife, and cattle attributes across wide‐ranging communally managed pastoral rangelands in northern Kenya. We found that planned grazing enhanced vegetation condition through a 17% increase in normalized difference vegetation index, 45–234% increases in herbaceous vegetation foliar cover, species richness and diversity, and a 70% reduction in plant basal gap. In addition, planned grazing increased the presence (44%) and species richness (53%) of wild ungulates and improved cattle weight gain (>71%) during dry periods when cattle were in relatively poor condition. These changes occurred relatively rapidly (within 5 years) and despite grazing incursion incidents and higher livestock stocking rates in planned grazing areas. These results demonstrate, for the first time in Africa, the positive effects of planned grazing implementation in communal pastoral rangelands. These improvements can have broad implications for biodiversity conservation and pastoral livelihoods. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Impacts of livestock in regenerating upland birch woodlands in Scotland

Including large herbivores in wooded areas is often seen as a useful conservation tool. Browsing intensities on saplings in seven upland birch woodlands grazed by sheep, cattle and wild herbivores were studied. The aims were to determine whether tree regeneration could occur in the presence of livestock, particularly sheep, and the conditions under which stock can be grazed sustainably within woodlands.The results showed that regeneration can occur at sites grazed by livestock. Within-site variation in the proportion of shoots browsed per sapling was high, but significant trends were detected. Browsing intensity was negatively related to good quality biomass per livestock unit, basal diameter and adjacent vegetation height. Saplings with a topiaried growth form were browsed more than saplings with a normal growth form.When writing management plans, stocking densities should be set in relation to forage quantity and quality. Understanding the relationship between good quality biomass per livestock unit and browsing intensity will facilitate more sustainable management of grazing within woodlands.     

Spatial distribution of soil carbon in pastures with cow-calf operation: effects of slope aspect and slope position

Background, aim, and scope  

The rate at which soil carbon (C) accumulates in terrestrial beef agro-ecosystem is uncertain, as are the mechanisms responsible for the current C sink. Broad knowledge of cattle movement in pasture situations is critical to understanding their impact on agro-ecosystems. Movement of free-ranging cattle varies due to spatial arrangement of forage resources within pastures and the proximity of water, mineral feeders, and shades to grazing sites. The effects of slope aspect (SA) and slope position (SP) on nutrient dynamics in pastures are not well understood. Few studies have been made of soil-vegetation and soil-landscape relationships along an elevation gradient in tropical and subtropical regions. Current literature suggests no clear general relationships between grazing management and nutrient cycling. Early study reported no effect of grazing on soils nutrients, while other studies determined increases in soil nutrients due to grazing. We hypothesize that SA and SP could be of relative importance in controlling spatial variability of soil organic carbon (SOC). This study addressed the effects of SA and SP on the spatial distribution of SOC in forage-based pastures with cow-calf operation in subtropical region of southeastern USA.     

Changing grazing systems in central north Namibia

Current and historical livestock movement patterns are explored in a semi‐arid communal environment in central–north Namibia, placed in context of increasing population, large‐scale enclosures, increased water supply and changing vegetation. Farmer's knowledge of movements, rangeland potential, vegetation condition and plant indicators was gathered and analysed with various methods such as Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). Local rangeland units were mapped with Landsat TM imagery and analysed with a Geographical Information System (GIS). The data suggest that good grazing was previously maintained by low herbivore pressure and frequent fires in a management regime controlled by hunter‐gatherers and limited permanent water supply. Population increase in settled areas starts migration to more fertile land units in previous prime grazing areas causing a conflict between grazing and cropping and a decrease in grazing condition triggering further migration and need for new water supply. Recent large‐scale enclosures are targeting predominantly more fertile land units with the most palatable perennial grass species and water, causing further conflict for communal farmers. Having reached the frontier of the traditional land there is no space for further expansion, resulting in the need to adapt to uncertainty with annual grasses more dependent on rainfall. Livestock movement patterns have changed drastically for large herd owners from transhumance and migration to largely permanent cattle posts. Small herd owners face increasing longer movements between kraals , water points, depending on less suitable and decreased unfenced grazing lands. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Wildlife as a source of protein in Africa South of the Sahara

The protein deficiency problems of Africa south of the Sahara are growing in seriousness with the increasing human population. Domestic livestock, on which very high hopes have hitherto been set, have continued to fail to meet existing demands, let alone to keep in step with increasing human population growth. There has been increasing exploitation of the meat of wild animals, whose management is ignored. This source of meat supplements domestic sources. The exploitation of wild animals, coupled with increasing pressure on the habitat of the animals, is exterminating most of the wild animal species involved. Advice that existing scientific knowledge on the management of wild animals must be applied to ensure their rational exploitation on a sustained-yield basis, has continued to be ignored— with the excuse that facts and figures are not available to justify investment in wildlife conservation that will ensure a sustained yield of the badly-needed animal protein. Every attempt must be made by those entrusted with the responsibility of wildlife conservation to bring together scattered information on the subject and, at the same time, begin to collect, systematically, statistical information on the utilization of wild animal meat as food—also to ensure that wildlife conservation receives the priority it deserves in the management of natural resources in Africa south of the Sahara. This is inevitable if wildlife conservation is to be able to meet the economic justification without which one nation after another will continue to give very low priority to wildlife conservation—to the detriment of the region—where malnutrition and poaching are serious realities as are also overgrazing, expansion of desert land, and human population explosion. Despite the fact that general experience indicates the need for concerted action, it appears that, in the absence of readily-available statistical data, which are supposed to be required by policy-makers and financiers, these people are not prepared to face their duty effectively to finance proper wildlife conservation and rational utilization of wildlife resources of Africa south of the Sahara.