Effect of human activities on bearded vulture behaviour and breeding success in the French Pyrenees

The bearded vulture is a threatened species for which human disturbance has been suggested as an important factor potentially influencing breeding success. Additionally, disturbance remains one of the few factors that is possible to control through directed policy. We evaluated the effect of human activities on the behaviour and breeding success of bearded vultures breeding in the French Pyrenees. Human activities influenced bearded vulture behaviour (primarily through a decrease in nest attendance), but this effect varied in relation to the type of activities and the distance to the nest. Very noisy activities and hunting most frequently provoked nest unattendance even when occurring far (>1.5 km) from the nest. People on foot or cars/planes only affected bearded vulture behaviour if close (<500-700 m) to the nest. We also found a significant relationship between human activities and vulture breeding success: the probability of failure increased with the frequency of human activities. In particular, there was a significant relationship between the probability of failure and the frequency of very noisy activities. We discuss the implications of our results for management schemes and conservation of this species.     

Survey of New Zealand Department of Conservation staff involved in the management and recovery of threatened species

In terms of managing biodiversity, a third of the land area of New Zealand is included in a conservation estate of national parks, reserves and sanctuaries. Administration of this large natural heritage asset is by 13 separate Department of Conservation (DOC) conservancies. A survey was conducted, across all conservancies, of DOC staff directly involved with the management and recovery of threatened New Zealand species. The aim of the survey was to gain an insight into how DOC staff regard the management tools available to them for the recovery of threatened species. The survey also assessed the perceived relevance of the threatened species recovery plans (TSRPs) currently in use by these staff. The results of the survey show that in general, the DOC staff consider that a lack of adequate funding, poor communication between conservancies and staff shortages have resulted in failure to achieve comprehensive management and recovery of threatened species. There was an expectation for TSRPs to comprehensively guide management and recovery actions but most staff concluded that TSRPs failed to meet this objective. It was identified that TSRPs need to be kept up-to-date and preferably in an electronic format accessible to all DOC staff throughout New Zealand. There was strong support for the establishment of a national approach for the recovery of threatened species. Concern was expressed that current resourcing only allowed recovery of a very small number of New Zealand’s threatened species with staff calling for secure funding for the duration of threatened species recovery programmes.     

The role of small reserves in plant conservation in a region of high diversity in eastern Spain

The Valencian region, in eastern Spain, is home to ≈3050 vascular plant species, 68 of which are listed under the critically endangered IUCN category. To afford protection to our endangered, rare and endemic flora, a network of small (2-20 ha) statutory reserves has been created by the Regional Wildlife Service. These are termed “micro-reserves” and encompass a large number of individual species and natural habitats. The objective is to monitor long term changes in the plant populations and to carry out active management of the protected plants. In the selection of plots, criteria of distinctiveness and endangerment of plants was followed. Eight years after the onset of this initiative, plant micro-reserves have become an essential tool for the effective protection of the diverse flora of this Mediterranean region.     

Habitat suitability models of saproxylic red-listed boreal forest species in long-term matrix management: Cost-effective measures for multi-species conservation

Understanding of how a large landscape or network of conservation areas and habitats of red-listed species change in time is an important topic when addressing the temporal interplay between protected areas and matrix. We developed models of habitat suitability indices (HSI) for saproxylic red-listed invertebrate and fungal species, accounting for roughly 70% of all red-listed boreal forest species of the study area in eastern Finland. By using a forestry planning program that incorporates various optimisation methods we analysed trade-offs between timber production and amount of habitats of saproxylic red-listed species within a 60-year period. We also produced production possibility frontiers that show how to increase quality of the matrix with least costs. Moreover, we analysed how habitat suitability criteria used in optimisations affect the area of different habitat quality classes.

Our analysis shows that by adopting HSI models in long-term matrix management, it is possible to increase habitats for several red-listed species without substantial losses in timber production. The increase in habitat area is achieved mainly by decreasing the area that is thinned compared to intensive timber production plan. In the long term, this seems to be a novel cost-effective method to increase the quality of the matrix for red-listed saproxylic species. However, the selected optimisation method and the criteria or specification of the management objective for red-listed forest species have a strong effect on results when HSI models are used in conservation planning. Therefore any practical application must be performed with great care.     

Supply of tree-holes limits nest density of cavity-nesting birds in primary and logged subtropical Atlantic forest

Tree cavities are proposed to limit populations and structure communities of cavity-nesting birds. Although the greatest diversity of cavity-nesting birds is found in tropical and subtropical moist forests, little is known about how tropical logging affects the abundance of cavities or cavity-nesting birds. We compared the abundance of cavities and cavity nests between primary and selectively-logged subtropical moist Atlantic forest in Argentina, and conducted the first before-after controlled nest-box addition experiment to determine whether nest sites limit the breeding density of cavity-nesting birds in tropical or subtropical moist forest. Visual inspection of 86 cavities identified through ground-surveys revealed that only 19% were suitable for nesting birds, suggesting that cavity abundance may be overestimated in the literature on tropical forests. Suitable cavities were found in fewer than 1% of 1156 trees <60 cm dbh but 20% of 20 trees >100 cm dbh. Logged forest had half the basal area of primary forest, one third the density of large trees, nine times fewer cavities suitable for nesting birds, and 17 times fewer active nests. When we added nest boxes, nesting density increased on treatment plots but not on control plots in both logged and primary forest, suggesting that cavity supply can limit nest density even in relatively undisturbed forest. This is the first experiment to show how reduced cavity supply in logged tropical forest can limit breeding density of cavity-nesting birds. International initiatives such as forest certification should promote tropical timber management strategies that conserve large live cavity-bearing trees.     

Application of GIS in plant conservation programmes in Portugal

A plant conservation programme is a complex process that requires several sets of studies. The relationships between plant location and its environment play an important role. Nowadays, the use of a GIS constitutes an essential complement for these studies that allows the incorporation of space and the analysis of these ecological interactions. GIS is being used at the Lisbon University Botanical Garden as a tool for conservation programmes on several plant groups and situations. Four case studies are presented in this work: (1) comparing ecological patterns between local and regional scale for the endangered bryophyte Bruchia vogesiaca Schwaegr.; (2) selecting protected areas according to habitat suitability—the case of endangered Portuguese bryophytes; (3) analysing the impact of the alien Carpobrotus edulis (L.) N. E. Br. on endemic plant species at the Berlengas Natural Reserve; and (4) ecogeographical survey for selection of sites for seed collection in order to guarantee a representative sample of the existing genetic diversity. Finally, this work discusses how the implementation of a GIS can help to optimise results and fieldwork effort.     

Does recovery planning improve the status of threatened species?

Recovery planning is a key component of government-funded initiatives to address declining populations of threatened species. To date, there has been limited retrospective evaluation on the impact of recovery plans, despite an increasing interest in evaluating recovery planning motivated by demands for greater accountability and a shift away from single-species focused strategies to multi-species, landscape and ecosystem-based plans. In the context of threatened species management in Australia, we aimed to investigate whether listed species with recovery plans are more likely to have improved their status compared to listed species without recovery plans. Since 1999, over 600 draft and approved recovery plans have been developed for more than 850 of 1663 species currently listed threatened species in Australia. We applied a novel econometric matching analysis to reduce biases associated with the non-random selection of species for listing and recovery planning. We found that the presence or absence of a recovery plan did not have a statistically significant effect on whether a species’ status was improving, stable or declining. The result suggests that recovery plans may not be useful in the short term and uncertainty persists about whether or not they make a long term contribution to species recovery. One major contributing factor is the lack of basic accounting of recovery planning efforts. This limits our ability to refute or confirm the impact of recovery planning on species status, and has the potential to reduce public confidence in government expenditures. Better systems for reporting and evaluation are therefore required to promote transparency, improve existing knowledge and facilitate efficient investments in future management actions.     

Translocations of eight species of burrow-nesting seabirds (genera Pterodroma, Pelecanoides, Pachyptila and Puffinus: Family Procellariidae)

Development of seabird translocation techniques is required to meet species recovery objectives, to improve conservation status, and to restore ecological processes. During 1997-2008 we undertook translocation trials on eight petrel species of four genera within the New Zealand region: common diving petrel (Pelecanoides urinatrix), fairy prion (Pachyptila turtur), grey-faced petrel (Pterodroma macroptera gouldi), Pycroft’s petrel (Pterodroma pycrofti), Chatham petrel (Pterodroma axillaris), Chatham Island taiko (Magenta petrel; Pterodroma magentae), fluttering shearwater (Puffinus gavia), and Hutton’s shearwater (Puffinus huttoni). A total of 1791 chicks within 5 weeks of fledging were moved up to 240 km, placed in artificial burrows and hand-fed until they fledged. Of these, 1546 fledged, and so far at least 68 have returned as adults to the translocation sites. Most birds were crop-fed a puree based on tinned sardines and fresh water. This diet worked well for all species regardless of their typical natural diet (planktonic crustaceans, squid, or fish) with all species fledging above or close to mean natural fledging weights.     

The Lazarus effect: can the dynamics of extinct species lists tell us anything about the status of biodiversity?

Lists of extinct Australian plants created over the last 20 years were examined and were shown to have high levels of turnover. In general, the lists are contracting in length and their composition changes substantially, a phenomenon we term the ‘Lazarus effect’. There is little explanation for these changes in the cryptic nature of species habits, or their distribution in remote locations. Most of the turnover is due to changes in knowledge about the species' status, and changes in taxonomy. Lists maintained in some other countries are more stable, but at the potential cost of underestimating the extent of extinction. Comparisons between jurisdictions and between lists are difficult because of different attitudes taken towards uncertainty and variation in research effort among different taxa. For any assessment that uses lists of extinct or threatened species as indicators of environmental change, we recommend that sources of bias are reduced and that uncertainties in lists are made more transparent. An important step in this process is to distinguish listing changes due to a change in status from those due to a change in knowledge about distribution, abundance and taxonomy. Assessments of environmental change based on species lists should be standardised to exclude these latter sources of variation, and take into account new assessments of previously unevaluated taxa.     

Grouping and prioritization of vascular plant species for conservation: combining natural rarity and management need

National and International Red Lists and Legal Acts specify species with conservation needs, mainly on the basis of personal experiences. For effective conservation we need scientifically justified prioritization and grouping of these species. We propose a new combined approach where species are grouped according to the similar activities needed for their conservation. We used the national list of vascular plant species with conservation need for Estonia (301 species), and linked these species to eight qualitative conservation characteristics, four reflecting natural causes of rarity (restricted global distribution; restricted local distribution within a country; always small populations; very rare habitat type), and four connected with nature management (species needing the management of semi-natural grasslands; species needing local disturbances like forest fires; species needing traditional extensive agriculture; species which may be threatened by collecting). Only one positive association occurred among the characteristics - between restricted local distribution and small size of populations. Thus, natural causes of rarity and management aspects are not overlapping, and both should be used in conservation activities. Species grouping by different conservation characteristics allows one to focus on species groups with similar conservation needs instead of individual species. Prioritization of species with conservation needs can be based on the number of conservation characteristics that are associated with a particular species. Our prioritization did not correlate with the categories of the national Red Data Book, but a positive association was found with legal protection categories. The legislation, however, covers only the natural causes of rarity. We propose a new combined approach for plant species’ conservation planning that starts by considering human induced rarity and progresses through to natural rarity causes.     

Applying IUCN criteria to invertebrates: How red is the Red List of European butterflies?

The IUCN is the leading authority on assessing species’ extinction risks worldwide and introduced the use of quantitative criteria for the compilation of Red Lists of threatened species. Recently, we assessed the threat status of the 483 European butterfly species, using semi-quantitative data on changes in distribution and in population sizes provided by national butterfly experts. We corrected distribution trends for the observation that coarse-scale grid cells underestimate actual population trends by 35%. To account for uncertainty, we included a 5% error margin on the distribution and population trends provided. The new Red List of European butterflies determined one species as Regionally Extinct, 37 species as threatened (Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable) and a further 44 as Near Threatened. The use of semi-quantitative data on distribution and population trends permitted us to use IUCN criteria to compile a scientifically underpinned Red List of butterflies in Europe. However, a comparison of detailed monitoring data for some grassland species showed that coarse-scale grid cell data and population trends strongly underestimate extinction risks, and the list should be taken as a conservative estimate of threat. Finally, combining the new Red List status with the data provided by the national butterfly experts, allowed us to determine simple criteria to delineate conservation priorities for butterflies in Europe, so called SPecies of European conservation Concern (SPEC’s). Using European butterflies, our approach illustrated how Red Listing can be performed when data are incomplete for some IUCN criteria or vary strongly among countries.     

Predation determines the outcome of 10 reintroduction attempts in arid South Australia

Ten reintroduction attempts were conducted in and around the Arid Recovery Reserve in northern South Australia between 1998 and 2008. Five locally-extinct mammal species and one reptile species were reintroduced into a fenced Reserve where cats, foxes and rabbits were excluded. Reintroductions of the nationally threatened greater stick-nest rat, burrowing bettong, greater bilby and western barred bandicoot were all considered successful based on short and medium-term success criteria. These criteria included continued survival after 8 years, increased distribution across the large Reserve and, most importantly, recovery after a drought event. The trial reintroductions of the numbat and woma python into the Reserve were unsuccessful due to predation by native avian and reptilian predators respectively. Outside the Reserve, where cats and foxes were present but controlled through poison baiting, reintroduction attempts of the greater bilby and burrowing bettong were unsuccessful. High mortality was attributed to cat and fox predation with dingoes also contributing to post-release mortality in bettongs. However, a reintroduction of burrowing bettongs into a fenced area with low rabbit and cat abundance has, to-date, met short-term and medium-term success criteria. Results suggest that the absence or severe restriction of exotic mammalian predators was the critical factor responsible for the success of the mammal reintroductions. Determining thresholds of predator activity below which successful reintroduction of threatened species can occur, are needed to improve the science of reintroduction biology in Australia.     

Endemic species: Contribution to community uniqueness, effect of habitat alteration, and conservation priorities

The biodiversity crisis, particularly dramatic in freshwaters, has prompted further setting of global and regional conservation priorities. Species rarity and endemism are among the most fundamental criteria for establishing these priorities. We studied the patterns of rarity and the role of rare species in community uniqueness using data on freshwater bivalve molluscs (family Unionidae) in Texas. Due to the large size and gradients in landscape and climate, Texas has diverse and distinct unionid communities, including numerous regional and state endemic species. Analysis of the state-wide distribution and abundance of Unionidae allowed us to develop a non-arbitrary method to classify species rarity based on their range size and relative density. Of the 46 Unionidae species currently present in Texas, 65% were classified as rare and very rare, including all state and regional endemics. We found that endemic species were a critical component in defining the uniqueness of unionid communities. Almost all endemics were found exclusively in streams and rivers, where diversity was almost double that of lentic waters. Man’s ongoing alteration of lotic with lentic waterbodies favors common species, and dramatically reduces habitat for endemics, contributing to homogenization of unionid fauna. We identified hotspots of endemism, prioritized species in need of protection, estimated their population size, and recommended changes to their current conservation status.     

Evaluating the demographic history of the Seychelles kestrel (Falco araea): Genetic evidence for recovery from a population bottleneck following minimal conservation management

An important requirement for biologists conserving vulnerable species of wildlife and managing genetic problems associated with small population size is to evaluate existing evidence regarding what is known of a species’ recent population history. For endemic island species in particular, current genetic impoverishment could be due to either a recent population crash or a consequence of an evolutionary history of sustained isolation and small effective population size. Interpreting any given case can often be further complicated by incomplete or contradictory evidence from historical field surveys that might suggest a very different demographic history. Here, we use the case of the Seychelles kestrel (Falco araea), an island endemic previously listed as critically-endangered but now relatively common, to illustrate how genetic data from microsatellite genotypes of 100–150-year-old museum specimens reveals a recent and severe population crash since the 1940s to approximately eight individuals, before the population recovered. We re-interpret the historical population trajectory of the Seychelles kestrel in the light of the minimal intervention required for this species to recover. We examine different ecological explanations for the decline and apparently unassisted recovery of the Seychelles kestrel, review the evidence for similarly unaided recoveries elsewhere and discuss the implications of unaided population recoveries for future species conservation programmes. Demographic profiles from historical genetic signatures can provide highly informative evidence when evaluating past and future recovery efforts for endangered species.     

Seed germination and conservation of endangered species from the Italian Alps: Physoplexis comosa and Primula glaucescens

Physoplexis comosa and Primula glaucescens, endemic to calcareous grasslands of the Lombardy Prealps, northern Italy, are protected under Annex IV of European Community Directive 92/43/EEC. Seed germination dynamics of these species were studied with the aim of producing appropriate germination protocols for use in ex situ conservation. Seeds were collected from Monte Barro (922 m a.s.l.) and for Primula glaucescens from three additional sites in a more central part of its range (1217-2521 m a.s.l.). Physoplexis comosa germinated only in sterile in vitro conditions, in which germination percentages were extremely low without a supply of gibberellic acid (GA3; 1.7%); the optimum GA3 concentration was 100 mg l⁻¹ (> 90% germination), with lower germination at higher doses of 250-500 mg l⁻¹. Primula glaucescens germinated in both sterile and non-sterile conditions and, although total germination was not affected by GA3 concentration, doses of 10-500 mg l⁻¹ acted equally to prompt earlier and more rapid germination. Primula glaucescens from Monte Barro was characterised by slower and poorer germination than from central sites.     

Emerging disease and population decline of an island endemic, the Tasmanian devil Sarcophilus harrisii

We present evidence that Devil Facial Tumour Disease (DFTD) is an emerging disease that is now widespread and constitutes a serious threat to the Tasmanian devil Sarcophilus harrisii. This species, the world’s largest extant marsupial carnivore, is endemic to Tasmania. DFTD is a cancerous disease found exclusively in wild devil populations, and appears to be consistently fatal to afflicted individuals. We draw on data from a wide range of sources and locations across Tasmania, acquired through trapping, spotlighting and public observation, to assess the impact and distribution of this disease. The dramatic tumours characteristic of DFTD were first reported in 1996. There were no reports of these signs in any of more than 2020 individuals trapped previously. Since 1996, DFTD has been histologically confirmed in individuals from 41 separate sites, covering 32 930 km² (51%) of mainland Tasmania. From the few sites for which timing of DFTD emergence can be estimated, there is evidence for geographical spread of the disease. Of 147 devils with DFTD-like signs, at least 140 were sexually mature. Proportion of animals displaying signs at any one site reached up to 83% (15/18) of trapped adults. Spotlighting surveys and trapping indicated a significant local association between population decline and date of first report of DFTD. In the region where the disease was first reported, mean spotlighting sightings declined by 80% from 1993-1995 to 2001-2003. On the basis of the threat posed by DFTD, the devil has been listed as a threatened species in Tasmania, and nominated for listing at national level.     

Conservation of Northern European plant diversity: the correspondence with soil pH

Effective biodiversity conservation requires an analysis of the existing reserve system. In temperate and boreal regions, plant diversity has a strong positive association with soil pH. Consequently, in order to protect plant diversity effectively, a relatively large proportion of protected areas should be on high pH soils. Since biodiversity data are never complete for all taxa, biodiversity indicators, e.g., threatened species, should be used. We studied soil pH distributions in protected areas in Northern Europe and tested whether soil pH requirement differs between threatened and non-threatened bryophyte and vascular plant species. As result, the proportion of high pH soils in protected areas was significantly greater than the proportion of these soils in general. This ensures that a large regional pool of plant species preferring high pH soils is relatively well protected. Threatened and non-threatened species in Northern Europe did not differ in their soil pH requirements, but threatened species required a narrower soil pH range than non-threatened species. Consequently, threatened species diversity can be used for indicating overall plant diversity.     

Planning low-impact tourist paths within a Site of Community Importance through the optimisation of biological and logistic criteria

A leading goal in the management of protected areas is to promote a balanced coexistence between wildlife and people. Although this target may be achieved by limiting human activities through buffer zones and restricted areas, a more rigorous approach can be based on optimisation models founded on quantitative and transparent scientific methodologies.

In this paper, a decision model is proposed, for the first time, for planning low-impact tourist paths within a European Union Site of Community Importance. The proposed methodology seeks to plan optimised paths based on a virtual landscape built on both biological and logistic criteria. Our model consists of four steps: (1) choice of biological and logistic constraints; (2) selection of biological and logistic factors; (3) use of fuzzy scoring to standardise and weight criteria and (4) application of least-cost modelling to the virtual landscape resulting from previous steps.

We identified three optimised routes for new tourist paths which have the least possible impact on existing biodiversity (habitats, plant and animal species), meeting logistic criteria as well. The proposed approach also allows the impacts of suggested paths to be estimated quantitatively thereby allowing comparison with existent paths. Proposed paths, based on optimisation, perform considerably well; furthermore, we were able to propose the decommissioning of eight existing paths that have high impacts on biodiversity.

This work not only proposes a framework for planning low-impact tourist paths within protected areas, but also purports the idea that, through the use of proper optimisation models, a satisfactory balance between nature and human activities is achievable.