The Economics of Agriculture in the Maricopa-Stanfield Irrigation and Drainage District in Central Arizona

The economic performance of a Central Arizona Projectirrigation district is determined by the economiccondition of the growers the district serves and theunderlying financial structure of the district. Inthe case of the Maricopa-Stanfield Irrigation andDrainage District, adverse economic conditions in theagricultural sector and a high debt obligationrelative to water sales called into question thefinancial sustainability of the district. Districtmanagement took positive steps, like the ManagementImprovement Program (MIP) and departmentrestructuring, to improve the economic performance ofthe water delivery system. These actions relied onthe shared understanding of the waterinterdependencies between agricultural and urban userswhich was obtained through the Diagnostic Analysis ofthe MIP.     

On-Farm System Performance in the Maricopa-Stanfield Irrigation and Drainage District Area

A detailed Diagnostic Analysis (DA)was performed on an irrigation district in CentralArizona as part of a Management Improvement Program(MIP). The DA was conducted by an interdisciplinaryteam who focused their findings on performance of theirrigated agricultural system, on- and off-farm,rather than on disciplines. This paper reports on thefindings related to on-farm management. Specificfindings are presented relative to farm water use,soil sustainability, the interactions between the farmirrigation system and the water delivery system, andthe adoption and transfer of new technology. Theresults point to the need for appropriate applicationof technology, ongoing farmer education, andcoordination of farm and district operations andgovernment agency programs. The interdisciplinarynature of the DA team was essential for properlyassessing performance. Although this study was donein the state of Arizona in the USA, the methodologyused and some of the general conclusions areapplicable to other locations, both within and outsidethe United States.     

Diagnostic Analysis of the Maricopa-Stanfield Irrigation and Drainage District Area

Diagnostic Analysis (DA) is a methodologyfor assessing and understanding the performance of anagricultural system. This analysis is thefirst step in a large system change process, known asthe Management Improvement Program (MIP), whoseobjective is to improve the performance of the agricultural system.A group of Federal andstate of Arizona agencies agreed to apply the MIPmethodology in a western U.S. setting. The purpose of theapplication was to test the applicability of the MIPapproach and to refine themethodology. This paper describes how the DAmethodology was applied in the Maricopa-StanfieldIrrigation and Drainage District (MSIDD) area incentral Arizona, USA, and summarizes the lessonsderived from that experience. Specific findings ofthe DA study and the response of MSIDD areaagriculture to those findings are discussed inseparate articles.     

Application of the Analytic Hierarchy Process to irrigation project improvement: Part I. Impacts of irrigation project internal processes on crop yields

Performance improvement of existing irrigation projects has been a major concern in international irrigation development. Activities for irrigation project improvement usually involve not only infrastructure (hardware) improvement but also changes in management. However, the impact of management improvement on irrigation performance has not been sufficiently verified because, in most cases, (a) irrigation project evaluation is done qualitatively, and (b) management improvement is implemented simultaneously with hardware improvement. Therefore, the impact of management improvement needs to be evaluated quantitatively and separately from hardware. This research attempts to quantify effects of management and hardware improvements on irrigation project performance, using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). First, an AHP model for irrigation project evaluation was developed by using internal process indicators of the rapid appraisal process. Secondly, the AHP model was applied for scoring 16 irrigation projects dealt with in FAO Water Reports 19. Then, finally, effects of the evaluation factors (e.g. managing entities, hardware, water delivery services) on irrigation project performance were analyzed by changing weights of the evaluation factors and comparing correlations between AHP model scores and crop yields. The research showed the potential and effectiveness of AHP application to irrigation project evaluation. Also, it revealed that the quality of water delivery service had a significant impact on crop production. Analysis through correlation did not imply significant relationships among water delivery services, management and hardware. However, it is inferred from the result that there would be still more room to improve the AHP model toward better evaluation of the irrigation project by adding more internal process indicators to the model.     

Statistical methods for irrigation system water delivery performance evaluation

There are several different parameters that can be measured and used to describe the performance of water delivery service; flow rate, volume, duration, pressure, and frequency. The proper one(s) to consider depends on the project conditions and objectives. The overall performance of an irrigation water delivery system can be broken down into two components; the delivery schedule and operations. The performance of the delivery schedule can be evaluated by looking at the ratio of intended to required water (volume, rate, duration, etc.) and the performance of operations by the ratio of actual to intended water. The overall performance is expressed by the product of these two ratios; the actual divided by the required water. Statistical relations are provided to express equity, adequacy and reliability from measurement of these ratios.     

Assessment of water delivery efficiency in irrigation canals using performance indicators

Agricultural water is delivered by open irrigation canals in system of reservoirs with a widespread distribution in South Korea. Traditional irrigation management problems include water distribution systems with less capacity than the peak demand, irregular delivery rates, and low irrigation efficiency and uniformity. It is necessary to strategically compare the estimated irrigation demands with the actual water supplies for decision making in order to maintain the water supply according to the demand. Accurate measurement and monitoring of water distribution systems is essential in order to solve the problems of water efficiency and availability. Auto water level gauges installed at the head and tail sections of each irrigation canal in the Dongjin River were used to measure the discharge during irrigation periods. In this study, we introduced an approach to assess the water delivery performance indicators of the open irrigation canals, which is essential for identifying the key issues for water management improvement. The irrigation efficiencies according to the water delivery performance indicators were measured with an automatic water gauge in the irrigation canals and were calculated from the spatial and temporal distribution of the water supply for the lack of planning in water delivery. The calculated performance indicators are useful to understand the irrigator behavior and general irrigation trends. Analysis of the results yielded insights into possible improvement methods in order to develop water management policies that enable irrigation planners to improve the temporal uniformity and equity in the water distribution.     

Multiple-Use Management in a Large Irrigation System: Benefits of Distributed Secondary Storage

Large-scale canal irrigation projects are commonly seen as profligate users of water. Their low water productivity has been attributed by many authors to deficiencies in management or to actions by farmers to circumvent management control over water distribution. Inadequate design has sometimes been cited as a contributing factor, but the relationship between design and manageability has received too little attention. In most conventional large-scale irrigation systems imperfect matching between water supply and demand is an inescapable fact of life that leads to operational spillages and low efficiency. Provision of auxiliary storage reservoirs at strategic points within the canal system can buffer this mismatch and improve service delivery and also aid recovery of return flows. Such reservoirs may bring additional benefits in that they provide opportunities for multiple-use management and increased productivity of irrigation water. This paper presents a case study of Mahaweli System H in Sri Lanka, which incorporates a large number of secondary reservoirs within its 25000 ha command area. The paper examines current operational performance and considers scope for and constraints to multiple-use management.     

Influence of cross-regulator settings on the offtake discharge in a modern irrigation network

The hydraulic performance of canals and related delivery structures is highly dependent on the management of cross-regulators. The HEC-RAS model was applied to Ordibehesht Canal at the Doroodzan irrigation network, northwest of Fars province in Iran for evaluation of water delivery performance due to operation of cross-regulators. Discharge deviations of offtakes due to cross-regulator gate position changes and deviations of water delivery equity were evaluated. Results showed that small changes in gate positions of check structures (cross-regulators) cause considerable changes in the offtake discharges and equity (spatial uniformity) of water delivery to the offtakes along the main canal. Results of the study led to the development of two sensitivity indicators. “Offtake sensitivity to check setting” that represents the changes in offtake discharges due to changes in cross-regulator setting, and “Sensitivity of the equity indicator to the gate position change” are the two developed indicators which can be used for better management of water delivery systems.     

Lessons from the Demonstration Management Improvement Program

The Management Improvement Program,a process based on Organizational Developmentprinciples and methods, was applied to an irrigatedagricultural system in Arizona, USA. The MIP seeks toimprove management and performance of the agriculturalsystem through structured diagnosis, planning, andimplementation activities with the participation ofsystem stakeholders. An equally important objectiveof the demonstration project was to identify strengthsand shortcomings of the MIP methodology and togenerate recommendations for managing its futureapplications. The data used to analyze thedemonstration project's management were obtainedthrough formal interviews and informal conversationswith individual participants, program review andfeedback sessions, and records of meetings andindividual communications.Lessons about the project's management are categorizedin six areas: the initial exploration phase, initialplanning, participant on-boarding, formation of theprocess management team, development of the localcontrol group, and evaluation of the project. A keyaspect of conducting a change process such as the MIPfor improving the performance of agricultural systems,is that issues affecting the system may be difficultto identify early in the process or may requirelonger-term solutions, extending beyond the life ofthe formal process. Because of this uncertainty, adetailed action plan, the role of participants, andmeasures for evaluating progress or impact are alsolikely to be uncertain early in the project. Nevertheless, it is critical that the application,including these elements, be defined as concisely aspossible, especially relative to scope and funding,while still allowing the flexibility to address apotentially wider range of issues. Given the natureof the MIP, those responsible for its management needto be technically proficient, experienced with teammanagement techniques, sensitive to the localpolitical environment of natural resource management,and when necessary, willing to challenge stakeholders'initial understandings of issues.     

灌区配水调度模型及其应用

为使灌区的用水管理由经验定性决策向科学定量决策过渡，研制了位山灌区配水调度模型。本模型以干渠测流站为基础，按照“流量包段、责任到所”及“计量供水到县（市区）”的原则，将灌区分设东、西渠系统，干渠分为若干段，段内分片。模型设计紧密联系位山灌区的配水现状，分析研究存在的问题，将常规调水技术抽象概化成不同的配水方式。该配水调度模型从1991年开始使用至今。     

湖南省农村饮水安全工程建设效果后评价研究

通过对湖南省农村饮水安全及工程建设情况进行分析,从工程效果、工程完成情况、财务管理、工程管理情况以及生态环境负效应5个方面构建3层13个指标的饮水安全工程建设效果综合后评价指标体系,并分别采用层次分析法(AHP)、TOPSIS法、突变评价法,对湖南省各地区农村饮水安全工程建设效果进行综合后评价。结果表明,湖南省大部分地区的饮水安全工程建设效果良好,但应加大农村饮水安全薄弱环节的建设力度,强化农村水源地保护与村镇环境治理。     

Modeling delivery performance in pressurized irrigation systems from simulated peak-demand flow configurations

A methodology to assess performance of pressurized irrigation distribution networks is presented, which is based on generation of flow configurations from simulated delivery scenarios, and on subsequent analysis of network operation and delivery achievements. The rationale of the methodology entails simulating the peak-demand flow configurations in the pipe network through a deterministic–stochastic combined agro-hydrological model, and forecasting the delivery performance by means of a hydraulic simulation model and of some specific performance indicators. The agro-hydrological model generates disaggregated information on soil water deficits for all the cropped fields downstream from the delivery hydrants, and forecasts the demand flow hydrographs and irrigation deliveries for the entire service area during peak-demand periods. The simulated-demand flow configurations are then passed on to the hydraulic simulation model, which evaluates the hydraulic performance achievable by the pipe network. The performance analysis is then refined using additional indicators specifically adapted to pressurized irrigation networks. The proposed methodology was applied to a large-scale pressurized irrigation system of southern Italy that is in need of modernization. Results proved the usefulness of the combined use of simulation tools as components of an analytical framework to address modernization and re-engineering of existing irrigation delivery networks, on the basis of targeted delivery performance.     

基于BSC的农业节水技术公司化服务模式绩效评价指标体系研究

农业节水技术公司化服务模式是一种创新型高效用水管理模式,即"企业实施,农户参与,政府监管"的集约化运行管理模式。以平衡计分卡4个维度为基础,从服务业绩、服务对象、内部运行机制和服务主体的发展4个层面构建一套科学合理的绩效评价指标体系,有利于对农业节水技术公司化服务模式绩效进行科学、全面、客观、公正的评价。     

Performance measure for improving irrigation management

A measure to evaluate performance in irrigation systems is analyzed using the mean square prediction error concept. In the context of irrigation system management, the term error means the deviation of actual performance from a reference performance. The measure assesses performance in terms of the management objectives of adequacy and dependability of water delivery and an equitable distribution among various water users. It provides an understanding of the management capacity to schedule and distribute water in an irrigation system. Application of the performance measure is demonstrated by evaluating performance of an irrigation system in the Northwest Frontier Province of Pakistan.     

Spatial and Temporal Variability Performance of the Water Delivery in Irrigation Schemes

The primary objective of thisstudy was to develop a procedure for assessingthe performance of spatial and temporalvariability of water delivery in irrigationsystems. The approach generates a set ofindicators to be used at various evaluationlevels composed of relevant spatial andtemporal elements. Application of themethod is illustrated by analyzingthe performance of the Doroodzan IrrigationSystem in Iran. The study depicts that, notonly is spatial and temporal variabilityneeded to assess the water deliverysystem, but also that uniformity of thevariability should be considered. With thisapproach, it is possible to achievethis, and also to analyzethe parameters adequacy, reliability, andequity in water delivery systems.     

池塘养殖水质监控系统设计与实现

为了实现池塘养殖水质环境的自动化管理和控制,对养殖生产进行辅助决策,采用先进的计算机技术和传感技术、网络通信技术、自动控制技术等手段,开发池塘养殖水质监控系统,改变传统的养殖生产管理方式,促进水产养殖业的可持续发展。     

Simulation of peak-demand hydrographs in pressurized irrigation delivery systems using a deterministic–stochastic combined model. Part I: model development

This study describes a model named HydroGEN that was conceived for simulating hydrographs of daily volumes and hourly flow rates during peak-demand periods in pressurized irrigation delivery networks with on-demand operation. The model is based on a methodology consisting of deterministic and stochastic components and is composed of a set of input parameters to reproduce the crop irrigation management practices followed by farmers and of computational procedures enabling to simulate the soil water balance and the irrigation events for all cropped fields supplied by each delivery hydrant in a distribution network. The input data include values of weather, crop, and soil parameters, as well as information on irrigation practices followed by local farmers. The resulting model outputs are generated flow hydrographs during the peak-demand period, which allow the subsequent analysis of performance achievable under different delivery scenarios. The model can be applied either for system design or re-design, as well as for analysis of operation and evaluation of performance achievements of on-demand pressurized irrigation delivery networks. Results from application of HydroGEN to a real pressurized irrigation system at different scales are presented in a companion paper (Part II: model applications).     

Water Delivery Performance in the Doroodzan Irrigation Scheme, Iran

Delivery performance ratio was used to assess thewater delivery performance in an irrigation district in theDoroodzan Irrigation System in Iran. The measurements wereapplied to three selected irrigation canals and their tertiaryoutlets during five consecutive irrigation cycles. The canalswere located at the head, middle and tail end of the irrigationdistrict.Performance indicators reveal that the physical system and themanagement could respond to the delivery of the intended supply.The indicators show a better reliability performance than theequity performance in water delivery at the tertiary outlets. Theresults from the Doroodzan Irrigation System reveal that thesystem could not deliver water according to the real crop waterrequirements. The actual overall efficiency was used to quantifythe water delivery performance in terms of deficit and excesswater. The equity and reliability performance was illustrated byusing the spatial and temporal variation of the expected overallefficiency at the district level.     

The quality of service provided by the irrigation department to the users associations, Tunuyan System, Mendoza, Argentina

The quality of service provided by the provincial Irrigation Department (DGI) to the Water Users Associations (UA), and subsequently by the UA's to the related water users, is based on the provincial water law. The intended volume of water being delivered per considered period further depends on the water availability and on the (crop irrigation) water requirements. The Service Level (SL) compares the intended water supply with the water supply that would be required to supply the entire irrigable area with sufficient water. As soon as the intended water delivery pattern is set, the measured actual delivery can be assessed against the intention. Several performance indicators are used in this context. Based on the assessment of the Water Delivery Performance Ratio and the Overall Consumed Ratio recommendations are made on changes which can be made to improve water use and reduce problems of waterlogging.     

Low Cost Satellite Data for Monthly Irrigation Performance Monitoring: Benchmarks from Nilo Coelho, Brazil

Irrigation performance indicators can helpwater managers to understand how anirrigation scheme operates under actualcircumstances. The new contribution ofremote sensing data, is the opportunity tostudy the crop growing conditions at scalesranging from individual fields to schemelevel. Public domain internet satellitedata have been used to calculate actual andpotential crop evapotranspiration, soilmoisture and biomass growth on a monthlybasis in the Nilo Coelho irrigation scheme,Pernambuco (Brazil). Satellite interpretedraster maps were merged with vector maps ofthe irrigation water delivery system.Monthly values of a minimum list ofirrigation performance indicators for thevarious service units in the pressurizedNilo Coelho scheme were determined. NiloCoelho is a good performing scheme. Theperformance can be improved further if 25%irrigation water is saved from February toJuly. The benchmark figures from thismodern irrigation system are presented forcomparitive analysis with other systems.The acceptable ranges in space and timeare presented. On average, 65% of thelateral pumping units on a monthly basisfall within the acceptable limits ofirrigation performance. Low cost irrigationperformance data based on low resolutionsatellite images (US$ 1/ha) will help themanagement team to focus on specificpumping units, and discuss alternativeirrigation and farm management strategieswith the stakeholders.