Pilot Demonstrative Work of Returning Cultivated Land to Forests and Pastures in Western Areas Gets Started

AimingatnaturalenvironmentconditionsinChina'swesternregions,theStateCouncilhasdecidedtoimplementnaturalenvironmentprotectionanddevelopmentwithmaincomponentsofnaturalforestprotection,afforestationandgrassgrowingonsuitablewastelandandsystematicallyreturningcultivatedlandtoforest(grass),thisisanimportantdecisionbyChinesegovernmentforthepurposeofeconomicandsocialsustainabledevelopment,andisthefoundationofimplementinglarge-scaledevelopmentofwesternareas.TheStateForestryAdministration,theStatePla…     

Forest–tundra ecotone response to climate change in the Western Sayan Mountains,Siberia

Abstract

Tree response to climate trends is most likely to be observed in the forest–tundra ecotone, where mainly temperature limits tree growth. On-ground observation and multitemporal Landsat data were used in the analysis of forest–tundra ecotone dynamics (from 1976 to 2000) in the Western Sayan Mountains, Siberia. Observations showed an increase in forest stand crown closure, upward tree-line and regeneration shift and the transformation of Siberian pine and fir krummholz into arboreal forms. Closed stands were increasing in the area at a rate of 0.8% year^?1 and advancing their upper boundary at an altitudinal rate of 0.6 m year^?1; these changes were shown mainly by the transformation of sparse stands into closed stands. The altitudinal rate of regeneration propagation was estimated at 1.2 m year^?1. It was also found that these changes correlated positively with temperature trends. The response of tree vegetation to air temperature increase was dependent on topographic relief features (azimuth and slope steepness).     

Costs for thinning and final felling operations in Sweden, 2000–2017

ABSTRACT

Wood supply is one of the most significant cost items for most forest industries, and costs of forest operations and sale prices of wood is vital information for forest owners. Cost trends between 2000 and 2017 in Swedish forestry is analysed, separately for final felling and thinning, and subdivided into ordinary and salvage operations. Data on costs for operations totalling 821 million m³ harvested roundwood were analysed, both as actual costs and after adjustment for the consumer price index. Adjusted costs for ordinary harvesting operations declined between 2000 and 2007, increased during 2008 and 2009 and have since been relatively constant. Costs of salvage logging operations performed as thinning were 21% higher than ordinary thinning, and when performed as final felling costs were 64% higher than in ordinary final felling. The relative logging cost trends in Sweden and Finland were similar during the period, and there are similarities with the US. However, while logging costs in Sweden and Finland increased in 2008 and 2009, they declined in the US and did not reach the same relative level as in Sweden until 2013. Results can be used for benchmarking logging costs between regions or larger buyers of logging services.     

Biogeographic Differences in Cone, Needle and Seed Morphology among Natural Picea asperata Populations in Western China

This study represents a geographical approach to morphological variation of cones, needles and seeds in natural dragon spruce （Picea asperata Mast.） populations across western China and the relationship between morphological traits and weather variation for the origins of populations. Significant differences were found for all cone, needle and seed traits among populations and trees within populations. The coefficients of variation in 2 higher latitude populations were higher than those in other populations in all traits except for needle width and seed width. Fairly high within-population variability was also detected for cone dry weight, seed dry weight and needle traits in this study. Cone length, cone width, cone dry weight, seed scale length, seed scale width and seed wing length were strongly positively intercorrelated. Seed length and seed dry weight showed a significantly positive correlation with seed wing length. And needle width showed a significant negative correlation with cone traits, seed scale length, seed wing length and seed length. The higher the annual mean temperature, the higher the average cone length. This study also revealed a negative linear dependence on latitude： the higher the latitude, the lower the population average seed length. Seed dry weight was positively and linearly related with altitude.     

Degradation in an Afromontane Forest in Highland Ethiopia, 1969–2010

Small-scale Forestry - Increased recognition of forest fragments as integral components of multi-functional landscape mosaics creates opportunity to broaden approaches to forest management in rural...     

Long-term changes in forest cover 1780–2007 in central Bohemia, Czech Republic

Many studies have recently been devoted to the study of landscape change, and some have even focused on an analysis of the dynamics of forest cover change. However, few of the studies have worked on a methodology for making a detailed investigation of long-term forest change dynamics based on historic cartographic sources. The goal of this study is to further develop a method for analyzing long-term changes in forest cover on the basis of old maps and orthophoto maps in the GIS environment. The study area is located in Central Bohemia, to the east of Kutná Hora, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The area consists of 21 cadastral units with a total area of 113 km². The maps of the First (1780), Second (1851) and Third Military Surveys (1877) and the present-day orthophotomap (2007) of the Czech Republic were used as data resources. Source data have been processed in GIS. Forest cover is the subject of our study. However, the term is perceived from a broader perspective. What we call forest cover in our study refers to forest wood elements and other wood species in the landscape. In this study, forest cover has been structurally considered as a whole, without dividing it into the two categories mentioned. We counted the extent of the forest cover in each particular time horizon in hectares and as a percentage of the area under study, also the absolute changes in forest cover between the individual time horizons in hectares as well as the intensity of the changes in forest cover in hectares per year. The spatial changes in forest cover were evaluated in a GIS environment using specialized features to analyze spatial variation. The forest cover occupied 16.60% (1,880 ha) of the total area in the First Military Survey (1780). In 2007, the proportion was slightly higher at 16.64% (1,884 ha). More than half of all forest land (53%) from the time of the Second Military Survey (1851) survived until 2007. Not only the information on absolute changes but also the information on the rate of change is of great importance. The old Military Survey maps and the orthophotomap enable us to carry out studies of long-term changes in forest cover. However, the geodetic inaccuracy of the First Military Survey maps precludes reliable and exact quantification of the landscape changes between the First Military Survey and the Second Military Survey, and also between the First Military Survey and present-day (orthophoto map). These maps cannot be used for evaluating forest cover changes on the level of individual plots. The method presented in our paper may contribute to a better understanding of the long-term dynamics of forest land, covering a period of more than 250 years. This knowledge can be applied in forest management planning procedures. Apart from their application in forestry, the methods presented in this study may be of interest for historians and biologists.     

Coarse root–shoot allometry of Pinus radiata modified by site conditions in the Western Cape province of South Africa

The relationship between root and shoot growth and how it is modified by chronic or episodic drought stress is so far not well understood. Allometric partitioning theory (APT) supposes a constant root–shoot allometry. Optimal partitioning theory (OPT) assumes that plants’ root growth is enhanced under water limitation. However, recent studies show that fine and coarse roots react differently. This paper draws attention to the root–shoot allometry of adult Monterey pines (Pinus radiata D.Don) and its dependency on site conditions in South Africa. For assessment of the root–shoot-diameter relationship as an allometric relationship in general and for comparison with APT we used a sample of nine radiata pines from Jonkershoek and three maritime pines (Pinus pinaster Aiton) from Napier. In order to test for a site-dependency of the root–shoot allometry we sampled increment cores from stem and coarse roots of 48 radiata pines along a gradient from moist to dry sites in the Western Cape province. Tree ring analysis revealed an allometric relationship between root diameter (dr) and shoot diameter (ds) (ln(dr) = a + α _dr,ds × ln(ds)). Despite strong variation of the allometric exponent α _dr,ds we found a systematic deviation from 1.0 as would be predicted by APT. We also found α _dr,ds to decrease with drought stress, which is contradictory to both APT and OPT. However, on sites with more pronounced drought stress we detected greater allometric factors a. We hypothesise that fine root growth, and also fine root mortality, is higher on dry sites. On these sites coarse roots seem to be less necessary for matter transport compared with moist and fertile sites. On the latter, fine roots are less ephemeral and require larger coarse roots for transport. We conclude that combined root shoot tree ring analyses have the potential for improving understanding and modelling ecosystems and better assessment of forest functions such as resource use efficiency, stand stability and belowground carbon storage.     

A Study of Consistency between Land Degradation Control Policy and Farmers’ Needs in Western Area,China

The paper chose two counties (Qis) in Inner Mongolia as the research areas to study the policies of conversion of farmland to forest and grazing prohibition and indoor raising implemented in there, which are closely related to the interests of farmers and herdsmen. Based on the investigation and interview among farmer households, the paper analyzed the consistency between land degradation prevention and control policy and the needs of farmers and herdsmen, and finally presented the countermeasures and sugge...     

Temporal change in carbon stocks of cocoa–gliricidia agroforests in Central Sulawesi,Indonesia

In a false-time series, the temporal development of cocoa–gliricidia carbon (C) stocks and soil organic carbon (SOC) were investigated in Napu and Palolo Valleys of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. As a first step, the Functional Branch Analysis (FBA) method was used to develop allometric equations for the above- and below-ground growth of cocoa and gliricidia. FBA resulted in shoot–root ratios of 2.54 and 2.05 for cocoa and gliricidia, respectively. In Napu and Palolo, the trunk diameter and carbon levels per gliricidia tree were always much greater than that of cocoa. The highest aerial carbon levels were attained at year four in Napu (aerial cocoa–gliricidia = 20,745.2 kg C ha⁻¹) and at year five in Palolo (aerial cocoa–gliricidia = 38,857.0 kg C ha⁻¹). After years four or five, however, the reduced stocking density of gliricidia attributed to a loss of aerial C. During the time spans in question, SOC remained fairly stable though slightly decreasing in Napu and slightly increasing in Palolo. The SOC harbored a vastly greater amount of system C (one-half and one-third of SOC in the 0–15 cm stratum in Napu and Palolo, respectively) relative to tree components. Eight years (Napu) or 15 years (Palolo) after conversion of a rainforest to cocoa–gliricidia agroforestry caused an 88% and 87% reduction of aerial C-stocks in Napu and Palolo, respectively.     

Wood density of three oak species in Tennessee, 1940–45 and 1970–75

Three oak species from East Tennessee were core-sampled to determine whether the density of wood produced in a pre-pollution period (1940–45) was different from that of a pollution period (1970–75) using gamma-densitometry. Component densities of average earlywood, average latewood, minimum earlywood, maximum latewood and average periodic density for Quercus alba L. and Quercus prinus L. were significantly greater for 1940–45 than for 1970–75. Differences between the two time periods for mean earlywood (P = 0.05), maximum latewood and mean periodic densities were found for Q. velutina.     

Dendroecology and species co-existence in an old-growth Quercus–Acer–Tilia talus slope forest in the central Appalachians,USA

Dendroecological techniques were used to examine the disturbance history and patterns of species recruitment in an old-growth Quercus rubra L. (northern red oak)–Acer saccharum Marsh. (sugar maple)–Tilia americana L. (basswood) forest on a steep, talus slope in eastern West Virginia. The forest was uneven-aged as were the populations of red oak. Sugar maple dominated the sapling layer, which comprised little or no basswood and red oak. A compilation of major and moderate releases (indicative of disturbance) in 25 cores revealed single or multiple release events in every decade from 1870–1990. The high elevation of the forest coupled with a fertile sub-soil beneath the talus ameliorated the outwardly harsh conditions of the site, allowing for the domination of typically mesophytic, nutrient demanding tree species. We observed several fire scarred trees as well as extensive small-scale blow-down throughout the forest. Frequent disturbance events were probably crucial to the co-existence and continuous canopy recruitment of the relatively light demanding red oak with highly shade tolerant sugar maple and basswood. The strong successional replacement tendencies of red oak by northern hardwoods noted elsewhere in the eastern US may be less apparent on high elevation, rocky sites in the central Appalachians. Thus, this is a unique case study of long-term red oak domination with later successional species in an old-growth forest.     

Vegetation structure and regeneration status of the moist,evergreen, afromontane Bore–Anferara–Wadera forest in southern Ethiopia

In a survey of the Bore–Anferara–Wadera forest to study the vegetation structure and regeneration status of woody plant species, 112 quadrats were systematically sampled along altitudinal transects to collect vegetation data. Nested sample plots of 30 m × 30 m and 5 m × 5 m were laid for collecting data on abundance and some variables of tree and shrub size. The regeneration status of woody species was assessed by counting all seedlings within the main sample plot. Woody plant species taller than or equal to 3 m were counted and their height and DBH measured. Density, frequency, basal area and importance value(IV) of woody plant species were computed. A total of 136 vascular plant species belonging to119 genera and 63 families were recorded. The overall Shannon—Wiener diversity value was 3.84 and evenness was 0.78. Total density of trees and shrubs with DBH >2 cm was 1047 ha-1. Size class distribution of woody species across different DBH and height classes indicated a relatively high proportion of individuals at lower classes,suggesting impacts of past anthropogenic disturbances.Analysis of population structure and regeneration status of the forest revealed various patterns of population dynamics where some species were represented by only a few mature plants, suggesting that they are on the verge of local extinction and that immediate conservation measures should be taken. The results highlight the need for joint management and conservation measures by the government, local people and other stakeholders to abate the rapid rate of deforestation and promote sustainable utilization of the forest resources in this forest in southern Ethiopia.     

Tree Seed Procurement–Diffusion Pathways in Wonogiri and Ponorogo, Java

Forty-two percent of the land area in the neighbouring districts (kapubatens) of Wonogiri, Central Java and Ponorogo in East Java is covered with secondary forests of naturalized exotic tree species that are common components of governmental land rehabilitation programs. The seed suppliers operating in the Wonogiri–Ponorogo area represent only 9% of the suppliers in Indonesia yet they account for 80–90% of the national tree seed supply capacity. Wonogiri–Ponorogo suppliers procure and sell 1,510 tons of seed annually. About 24% of this (362 tons) is exchanged between suppliers, 1,148 tons are sold to customers across Indonesia, and less than 1 ton is exported. About 72% of the seed sold (826 tons) is collected in the Wonogiri–Ponorogo area, the remainder originating in Sumatra, Madura and Nusa Tenggara. In Wonogiri–Ponorogo, tree seeds are collected by farmers on contract with seed assemblers or seed companies. Assemblers link farmer collectors with seed companies and middlemen, who sell seed to customers. Government agencies purchase 75% of the seed. Cover crop species, Gmelina arborea, Tectona grandis and Leucaena leucocephala account for the 85% of the total seed sold. The sheer volume of seed collected in Wonogiri–Ponorogo assures that it comes from a large number of unrelated trees over widely dispersed locations. However, research results indicate individual farmers collect seed from a limited number of adjacent trees. Experience indicates simple seed collection guidelines help farmers improve their seed collection practices and the genetic quality of seed collected. A commitment to seed quality by all agents involved in the seed trade and customers is required to make such guidelines functional and acceptable. Seed procurement and diffusion generate significant income for all seed agents. As the dominant agents who facilitate most of the activities and inputs required to move seed through the pathway from forests to customers, seed companies receive the most financial benefits. Farmer seed collectors are the most numerous agents in the seed pathway, with an estimated 22,500 farmers involved in seed collection activities annually. Farmer families living near seed companies earn additional income by processing seed.     

Fuel loads,snag abundance,and snag recruitment in an unmanaged Jeffrey pine–mixed conifer forest in Northwestern Mexico

Management of downed woody fuels and snags (standing dead trees) is receiving increasing attention because of their ecosystem values and effects on potential fire behavior. Research has correlated the abundance of many wildlife species with snags and downed woody material but very little information exists of the abundance and arrangement of these forest structures, particularly in unmanaged forests. Conifer forests in northwestern Mexico have not experienced systematic fire suppression or harvesting making them unique in western North America. In 1998, average snag density in Jeffrey pine–mixed conifer forests in the Sierra San Pedro Martir (SSPM) National Park was 3.95 snags/ha but 35% of inventoried plots had no snags. In 2002, average snag density significantly increased to 5.10 snags/ha after a multiple-year drought. Average surface and ground fuel loads were 15.8 and 8.7 t/ha, respectively. High variability characterized all snag and fuel attributes measured in this forest. This high amount of variation is probably the result of the relatively intact frequent surface fire regime and because no harvesting has occurred in the sampled area. The patchy distribution of snags observed argues against the application of uniform targets for snag retention across similar forested landscapes. An improvement in management guidelines would be to manage for snag density and large fuels over moderate spatial scales (hundreds of hectares) instead of on a per hectare basis. Forest fragmentation and diverse ownerships in many western United States forests complicates this recommendation. Conservation of the forests in the SSPM is critical because it is the last landscape-scale, old-growth mixed conifer forest in western North America with a relatively intact frequent fire regime.