Effects of Acid Deposition on Forest Soils in Northernmost Russia: Modelled and Field Data

In addition to strong natural stresses forest ecosystems in the Kola Subarctic, Russia, receive high loads of sulphur and heavy metals from the nickel smelter. To estimate soil response to acid deposition we compared the soil field data along a pollution gradient and simulated time effects. Multivariate technique was applied to investigate spatial distribution of soil field data. Time response of soils to acid deposition was evaluated with the SMART model. According to field observations there is no evidence for strong soil acidification effects close to the smelter. Concentrations of exchangeable Ca and base saturation increase, while acidity decrease in lower soil mineral horizons towards the pollution source. However, some features seem to reflect the early stages of the started acidification. Most soil profiles have low pH values. Despite increasing of exchangeable Ca and Mg towards the smelter in lower mineral horizons due to geological inheritance, they do not reveal the same trends in the upper ones. Concentration of exchangeable K in organic horizons decreases towards the smelter, thus confirming the starting acidification. As result, exchangeable base cations are depleted in the considerable part of shallow soil profiles. According to model simulation the present acid load does not effect considerably on forest soils in background areas, however, dramatic shift in soil chemistry near the smelter is expected within several decades. Due to low pool of exchangeable base cations and low weathering rate continued acid deposition can lead to increased soil acidification and nutrient imbalance.     

Effects of acid deposition on acidity and exchangeable cations in podzols of the Kola Peninsula

Response of soil and soil water of podzols in the Kola Peninsula to acid deposition was estimated under both field and laboratory conditions. A significant increasing trend of exchangeable acidity in organic (O) horizons and exchangeable Al in podzolic (E) horizons of podzols with distance from the nickel smelter was observed. The simulated rain at pH 4.5 did not alter chemical properties of soils and soil solutions. As much as 95–99% of the applied H⁺ ions were retained by soils and appeared in the percolates after a treatment period that depended on acid load and soil thickness. Ca and Mg in soil solutions were highly sensitive to acid loading. Simulated acid rain enhanced the leaching of exchangeable base cations out of root zone. Acid inputs resulted in decreased pH, amount of exchangeable base cations and base saturation, in elevated exchangeable acidity and it's Al fraction in soil solid phase. The most significant changes occurred in O and E horizons. Substantial amounts of both Ca and Mg can be lost from the root zone of podzols in the north-western Kola, subjected to acid deposition, thus leading to forest productivity damage.     

Classification schemes for the acidity,base saturation,and acidification status of forest soils in Switzerland

Soil chemical parameters related to soil acidity were determined for 1450 soil samples taken from individual mineral soil horizons in 257 forest soils in Switzerland, 196 developed from carbonate‐containing and 61 from carbonate‐free parent material. The distribution of pH values and exchangeable base cations in corresponding pH ranges were related to the capacity and rate of buffer reactions in the soil. Based on this, five acidity classes for individual soil samples were defined. To describe and classify the status of soil acidity and base saturation (BS) of an entire soil body, the pH and the BS of the total fine earth in the soil were calculated from the pH and BS, respectively, of the individual soil horizons and the estimated volumetric content of fine earth. The status of soil acidification of soil profiles was assessed primarily using the total amount of exchangeable acidic cations in percent of the CEC of the fine earth in the entire soil profile. As a second factor, the gradient between the acidity class of the most acidic soil horizon and the estimated acidity class at the beginning of soil formation was used. The application of these classification schemes to our collection of soil profiles revealed the great influence played by the type of parent material. The acidification status of most soils on carbonate‐containing parent material was classified as very weak to weak, whereas soils on carbonate‐free parent material were found to be strongly to very strongly acidified. In terms of parent rock material, microclimate, and natural vegetation, the results of this study and the proposed classification schemes can be considered appropriate for large parts of Europe.     

Effects of changes in pH, ionic strength, and sulphate concentration on the CEC of temperate acid forest soils

As the acidity of rain diminishes, changes in the pH, ionic strength, and ion activities of the soil solution will influence the charge characteristics of soil. We have investigated the response of cation exchange capacity (CEC) of three acid forest soils of variable charge to small changes in pH, ionic strength, and SO^2?₄ concentration. The variable charge for these temperate soils has the same significance as for tropical soils and those from volcanic ash. Maximum absolute increase in CEC on increasing pH by 0·2–0·5 units reached 5 cmol_c kg^-1 in O horizons. The increase in CEC on doubling ionic strength in EA and Bsh horizons of a Cambic Podzol was about half that amount, but relative gains compared to effective CEC were 65 and 46%, respectively. For other soil horizons, absolute changes were smaller, and relative changes were between 10 and 30%. Halving the SO^2?₄ concentration significantly influenced CEC only in some samples. Both pH and ionic strength must be adjusted with care when determining CEC_c of acid forest soils. Decreasing acid deposition will not inevitably increase CEC_c because in some soils pH effects may be balanced by simultaneous decrease in ionic strength.     

Human impacts on soil properties and their implications for the sensitivity of soil systems in Scotland

Human activities have had pronounced impacts on soil properties. Conifer afforestation in the uplands has caused significant decreases in soil pH and in the quality and turnover of organic matter. Acid deposition has increased soil acidity by a similar amount to conifer afforestation but has been shown to affect soils at greater depths. Acid deposition has also increased the mobility of trace metals in the soil and therefore increased metal concentrations in drainage waters. Applications of sewage sludge to the soil have been shown to increase metal concentrations, although most of the Scottish soils affected have high trace metal binding capacities. Intensification of arable cultivation in the lowlands has reduced organic matter concentrations, structural stability and soil workability, and has had effects on soil erodibility. Human trampling, while highly localised, affects sensitive mountain soils in popular areas, leading to loss of surface organic horizons, and therefore, carbon storage. The future impacts of human activities on the soil may be exacerbated by changing climate, and the need to monitor and predict these will not diminish.     

桂西北环境移民安置区新垦土地土壤质量与可持续利用研究——土壤肥力特征

本文对环江肯福环境移民安置示范区所采 88个表层土样及 4个剖面土样有机质 ,全氮 ,全磷 ,全钾 ,水解氮 ,速效磷 ,速效钾 ,pH等指标进行了测定。结果表明该区表层土壤有机质含量较高 ,土壤氮相对丰富 ,钾含量偏低 ,磷严重缺乏 ,pH偏酸性。土壤剖面发育完整 ,在土壤剖面中有机质、氮、速效磷、交换性钾主要聚集在 2 0cm的表层土壤中 ,全磷随深度的增加而降低 ,全钾和 pH值则随土壤深度增加而上升     

The origin and early genesis of clay bands in youthful sandy soils along lake Michigan,U.S.A.

A beach ridge and dune complex with good radiocarbon control sampling the last 3500 radiocarbon years B.P. provides new insights on the early genesis of clay bands in sandy soils. Soil profiles were sampled by age groups, described in the field, and then subjected to laboratory analyses for particle-size distribution, pH, organic carbon, carbonate minerals, and extractable iron and manganese. This study suggests that small increases in pH, brought about by small increases in carbonate content within the soil profile, are responsible for flocculating small amounts of illuviated clay. This process, along with a transition to a greater hydraulic conductivity with soil depth due to coarser textures in any given profile, partly explains the existence and possible reason for the initiation of illuvial zones and eventually for clay-band horizons. A pronounced increase in the thickness of incipient clay-band horizons in soils older than 2300 years appears due to finer textures in the parent materials than are present in younger soils. Because of slightly reduced porosity and lower permeability, carbonates and a high pH are retained in both illuvial and eluvial horizons of some of these older soils. In addition, only in those profiles older than 2300 years do clay and iron oxide concentrations coincide and is there some suggestion of greater amounts of extractable manganese in horizons of minimum iron and clay. A pronounced segregation of clay-iron bands is not apparent at the study area but should occur in future years as additional amounts of iron and clay are deposited.     

Ermittlung von analytischen Kriterien zur bodentypologischen Einordnung tiefreichend humoser Sandböden im Westmünsterland

Determination of analytical criteria for classification of sandy soils with deepreaching humus contents in the region of Westmünsterland While mapping agricultural areas in the region of Westmünsterland a problem of soil classification became obvious. There are widespread sandy soils of brown to greybrown colour, which have unusually high contents of humus down to several decimeters depth. Several chemical and physical laboratory investigations were carried out to answer the question of natural or anthropogenic origin. Based on the characteristics of diagnostic horizons from certain classifiable soils like Kultosole espec. Plaggenesche (Plaggepts/Anthrosols, 7 profiles) and Spodosols/Podzols (8 profiles) clearly differentiating characteristics should be derived. Comparing with datas from subsoil horizons of the questionable 11 profiles these should be attached to one of the former groups. Univariate and multivariate statistic methods like discriminant and cluster analysis were used to evaluate the analytical laboratory results. It was possible to attach 5 of 11 systematic questionable soil profiles to the group of Kultosole/Plaggenesch. As there is no better fitting systematical classification (like deepreaching humous Brown Earth o.s.) the remainder must be classified as Brown Earth or Podzol-Brown Earth.     

Modeling the transport of acidity in soil profiles with front — A dynamic transport model

A dynamic transport model, FRONT, that describes the downwards transport of acidity in podzolized forest soils is presented. In this model the downward transport of acidity with the soil solution is counteracted by a production of alkalinity through the weathering of primary minerals and delayed by the adsorption of sulfate and hydrogen ions on iron- and aluminium oxides. The heart of the model is a massbalance equation that describes the transport of bulk acidity/alkalinity. The FRONT model was tested on 23 deep soil profiles situated along three transects in west-to-east direction across Sweden. Using a deposition scenario starting at 1910 the model was able to account for the large regional differences in the present depth of the acid front. Assuming a linearly decreasing deposition until 30% of present deposition is reached in 2010 the model was used to simulate a scenario for profiles in different parts of Sweden. The scenarios indicated that the upper parts of soil profiles that are severely acidified today will recover and assume a new steady-state in 2030. However, for soil profiles that have large stores of adsorbed sulfate in the B horizon the simulations indicate that one can expect an increased acidity in the deep soil layers several decades after the deposition has ceased due to downward transport of acidity.     

Vertical distribution of low molecular weight aliphatic carboxylic acids in some forest soils of Japan

Low molecular weight organic acids are widespread and reactive in soils, but their distribution among mineral horizons is uncertain. We investigated the distribution of low molecular weight aliphatic carboxylic acids (LACAs) in three Japanese forest soils, two Acid Brown Forest soils and one Podzolic soil. The total LACAs ranged from 207.3 to 411.8 μmol kg^–1 and were abundant in the lower horizons as well as in the surface horizons of these soils. The illuvial horizons of the Podzolic soil were rich in adsorbed oxalic acid and citric acid. Total LACAs were similar in the two subtypes of Brown Forest soils derived from different parent materials but formed under similar vegetation and climate, and were larger than that in the Podzolic soil. Among the volatile LACAs, formic acid and acetic acid dominated the moist horizons containing much organic material, whereas the non-volatile LACAs, the most abundant being oxalic acid and citric acid, increased in the subsurface horizons. The distribution of water-soluble LACAs in the Brown Forest soil profiles was closely correlated with soil acidity.     

Features of abandoned cemetery soils on sandy substrates in Northern Poland

Morphological and chemical features of cemetery soils (Necrosols and undisturbed cemetery soils) have been studied with Northern Poland as an example. Special attention has been given to the contents of the total phosphorus (as an indicator of the anthropogenic impact); the organic carbon; the total nitrogen; the calcium carbonate; and the changes in the acidity and total Ca, Na, K, Al, Fe, Mg, Zn, Cd, and Pb. The soil profiles have been compared to the control soil (a Brunic Arenosol according to the WRB classification) occurring beyond the cemetery area. The changes in the studied burial soils are mainly manifested in their morphology: the disturbance of the primary genetic horizons and the presence of mixed soil horizons and artifacts (bones, coffin remains, limestone-concrete debris of the cemetery infrastructure). Such changes in the chemical properties as an increase in the contents of the organic carbon and total nitrogen and the soil reaction were observed. Our studies have shown that the highest Ptotal concentration is observed in the A horizons of the anthropogenic burial horizons and undisturbed cemetery soils. The content of phosphorus in the Necrosols is significantly higher than that in the control soil profile, as is observed for the Cgrb layers of burial Necrosols. The morphology and chemistry of the undisturbed cemetery soils are very similar to those of the control profile.     

Neutralization of atmospheric acid inputs in small spring catchments in the Frankenwald mountains,Germany

Investigations on soil and freshwater acidification are usually focused on well-aerated systems. This study deals with the role of reductive processes for the neutralization of acid soil solution within helocrene springs. Two toposequences consisting each of three profiles (forest soil, margin of fen, fen) were established to study the chemistry of the solid phase (soil pH, CEC, pedogenic Fe- and Al-oxides) and the soil solution in two small spring catchments on three dates during 1991 and 1992. Despite high acid inputs and acidified forest soils the pH of the spring outflow is near neutral, and the soil solid phases of the spring fens are not acidified. The results support the following hypothesis: Aluminum with its corresponding anion sulfate is leached with the soil solution into the water-saturated fens. Dissimilatory iron and sulfate reduction take place within the fen and generate alkalinity. Reduced iron either reacts with sulfide to form pyrite or migrates within the fen profile and precipitates in the uppermost, oxic horizons, consuming part of the generated alkalinity. Due to the higher pH values in the fens the incoming aluminum precipitates releasing acidity. The alkalinity generated exceeds the amount of acidity released by oxidation and precipitation of iron and the precipitation of aluminum. A balance of alkalinity consuming and alkalinity generating processes based on solid phases showed that iron and sulfate reduction can account for at least 67% of the neutralization of acidity entering the fen of one of the catchments. Due to shorter water retention times and higher discharge these processes are of minor importance in the other catchment.     

The base saturation in acidified Swiss forest soils on calcareous and noncalcareous parent material. A pH–base saturation anomaly

Long‐term soil acidification leads to lower pH values and to a concomitant decrease in base saturation (BS). The relationship between pH and base saturation (BS) in acidified forest soils can be disturbed by processes such as nutrient cycling by vegetation, temporary saturation by ground water that comes into contact with calcareous material, or by upward diffusion of base cations from deeper horizons. This paper examines the relationship between pH and BS in Swiss forest soils developed from calcareous and noncalcareous parent material and identifies some of the factors that can affect the BS in the decalcified parts of soils derived from calcareous parent material. The decalcified zone in the latter soils has a higher BS on average compared to soils from noncalcareous parent material, but their pH values are identical. In the pH range 4.0–4.5, the difference in BS may vary by a factor of three. The mean BS in the decalcified zone tends to decrease with increasing depth of the calcareous layer. The water regime also affects the BS in soils on calcareous parent material. In soils temporarily saturated by groundwater (gleysols), the BS in the decalcified zone is always high (85%–100%) because of the continuous contact between the soil water and the calcareous parent material. In addition, the inhibited drainage impedes the depletion of base cations in these soils. In contrast, soils that are temporarily saturated by rainwater are depleted in base cations due to the alternating wetting‐and‐drying regime and the associated leaching of dissolved ions. In such soils, the depletion of base cations is strongly related to the extent of hydromorphy. Stagnogleyic soils, with the longest period of water saturation, have the highest depletion levels. We conclude that in such soils, the diffusion of base cations from deeper zones is strongly compensated by leaching from the very acidic soil horizons. The pH–base saturation anomaly has consequences for some of the methods used to calculate the critical loads of acidity for forest soils in Switzerland, with many soils being less sensitive than previously reported.     

Changes in soil ph over a 50-year period under different forest canopies in SW Sweden

Reinvestigation of soil profiles, down to 70 cm depth in mineral soil, sampled for measurements in 1927 revealed a general decrease in pH for spruce and hardwood stands with 0.3 to 0.9 units. The pH-changes in the top soil can partly be explained by biological acidification, increasing with stand age. Stand age and species composition have less influence in deeper soil horizons and much of the acidification there is ascribed to acid deposition.     

红壤性水稻土可溶态稀土分布特征及与酸度调控的关系

测定了具有代表性的4种母质发育、3种水育型的红壤性水稻土及起源土壤的可溶性稀土(REEs)和稀土总丰度(∑REE),分析了REEs的分布特征及与∑REE的相关,研究了经酸碱调节后土壤REEs与pH值的关系,结果表明:(1)不同母质发育的供试土壤REEs平均值依石英闪长岩母质土壤系列、凝灰岩母质土壤系列、黑云母花岗岩母质土壤系列、玄武岩母质土壤系列顺序递减。(2)供试土壤REEs与∑REE的相关不显著。(3)起源土壤剖面中REEs具有明显自上而下增大的趋势,而不同水育型水稻土剖面的REEs分布各有特征,但总的趋势是自上而下减少。(4)经酸度调节后供试土壤的REEs随着土壤pH值的提高而下降,呈显著的幂函数相关。     

Microbiomes of the Soils of Solonetzic Complex with Contrasting Salinization on the Volga–Ural Interfluve

The analysis of ribosomal genes has been applied to study microbiomes of two soils of the solonetzic soil complex in the northern Caspian region. These soils—solonetz and quasigleyic chestnut soil—drastically differ in their salinity characteristics. The specificity of the vertical distribution of prokaryotes by the genetic soil horizons from the surface to the depth of 120 cm in these soils is discussed. The differences in the structure of microbiomes in the upper soil horizons can be related to the differences in the vegetation cover of the two soils, whereas the differentiation of microbiomes along the soil profiles is affected by the soil salinization. The solonetz is characterized by a much sharper decrease in the abundance and diversity of microorganisms down the soil profile in comparison with the leached quasigleyic chestnut soil. The total number of prokaryotes is mainly limited by the organic carbon content. In the upper soil horizons, Archaea from the phylum Thaumarchaeota are relatively abundant; their percentage decreases down the soil profiles. In the lower horizons of the solonetz, the genes of Marinobacter bacteria, which are considered marine inhabitants, have been found. It is probable that they persist in the soil since the previous transgression of the Caspian Sea.     

The Relationship between Topsoil and Stream Sediment Heavy Metal Concentrations and Acidification

Critical loads of acidity have been used by the UNECE Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution for the development of protocols to control the emissions of acidifying pollutants. Since soil acidity has an effect on the mobilisation of heavy metals in the environment, it is important to understand the relationships between acidity and heavy metal pollution. This paper examines the relationships between soil acidification and heavy metal (cadmium, copper, lead and zinc) concentrations in topsoils and in stream sediments. It makes use of published heavy metal data and two indices of acidification: soil pH and soil acidity critical loads. For cadmium and zinc, a general increase in the ratio of stream sediment to toposil metal concentrations is seen with a decrease in soil pH and soil acidity critical loads. This demonstrates that where soils are more acidic and acid sensitive the metal concentration in the stream sediments is greater relative to that in the topsoil, suggesting mobilisation of these metals under acid conditions. Results for copper are similar but the relationship weaker. However, for lead the ratios tend to decrease with a decrease in pH and critical loads suggesting that where soils are more acid, lead remains in the soil rather than being mobilised into streams and precipitating onto stream sediments. This reflects the association between soil lead concentrations and soil organic matter content, which tends to be greater in acidic, peaty soils.     

Factors affecting snowmelt streamwater chemistry in the black forest (West Germany)

Site conditions such as parent material, soils, but also vegetation cover and elevation explain the varying snowmelt streamwater chemistry in the Black Forest. The results are derived from multiple statistical analysis of a regional survey of 104 small mountain streams in the first phase of snowmelt in spring 1984. Cluster analysis classifies the snowmelt streams into three groups which are clearly linked to bedrock geology. Factor analysis finds podsolization, weathering and mineralization processes in the soils of the catchments to have most impact even under snowmelt conditions. There is no evidence that acidic atmospheric deposition directly affects the acidity of the investigated streams. However, the deposition rates are low compared to certain other regions in Central Europe. In areas with podsolic soils the organic soil layer plays a key role in the acidity and mobilization of Al and heavy metals. This is shown in the high correlations between pH, DOC, UV-extinction, color and metal concentrations. Because the concentrations of DOC are low (<10 mg.L^?1) and an anion deficit cannot be found, it is assumed that water acidity is not caused by dissolved humic acids, but by cations exchanged in the organic layer of acidic soils. Streamwater chemistry in areas with brown earth soil types is mainly affected by leaching of basic cations in the mineral soil horizons and mineral weathering.     

Specific features of the development of soils of hydromorphic ecosystems in the northern taiga of Western Siberia under conditions of cryogenesis

Differently directed and heterochronous cryogenic processes have contributed to the contrasting soil cover patterns and spatial heterogeneity of the properties of soils in hydromorphic ecosystems of the discontinuous permafrost zone of the northern taiga in Western Siberia. Frost heave and permafrost thawing within ecosystems of highmoor bogs have led to the development of specific cryogenic landforms, such as flat-topped and large peat mounds. A set of cryogenic soils is developed in these ecosystems; it includes different variants of cryozems, gleyzems (Cryosols), and peat soils (Histosols). The distribution of these soil types is controlled by the local topography and thawing depth, other factors being insignificant. Alternation of peat horizons of different types and ages, whirl-like patterns of horizon boundaries, considerable variations in the thickness of soil horizons, and inversions of soil horizons under the impact of frost cracking, frost heave, and cryoturbation are typical of the considered soils. Thawing depth is the most significant factor affecting the thickness of organic horizons, the soil pH, and the degree of decomposition of peat. As a result of the upward movement of bog ecosystems under the impact of frost heave, peat soils are subjected to considerable transformation: peat horizons undergo mineralization, and the thickness of organic horizons decreases; in some cases, eluvial–illuvial differentiation of the mineral horizons takes place, and peat podzols are developed. However, the opposite process of the return of the soils to the bog stage of pedogenesis with peat accumulation may take place in any time in the case of activation of thermokarst processes.