Natural mechanisms for cereal resistance to the accumulation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> trichothecenes

This review describes the naturally occurring mechanisms in cereals that lead to a reduction of Fusarium trichothecene mycotoxin accumulation in grains. A reduction in mycotoxin contamination in grains could also limit fungal infection, as trichothecenes have been reported to act as virulence factors. The mechanisms explaining the low toxin accumulation trait, generally referred to as type V resistance to Fusarium, can be subdivided into two classes. Class 1 includes mechanisms by which the plants chemically transform the trichothecenes, leading to their degradation or detoxification. Among the detoxification strategies, glycosylation of trichothecenes is a natural process already reported in wheat. According to the structure and the toxicity of trichothecenes, two other detoxification processes, acetylation and de-epoxidation, can be expressed, at least in transgenic plants. Class 2 comprises mechanisms that lead to reduced mycotoxin accumulation by inhibition of their biosynthesis through the action of plant endogenous compounds. These include both grain constitutive compounds and compounds induced in response to pathogen infection. There are already many compounds with antioxidant properties, like phenolic compounds, peptides or carotenoids, and with prooxidant properties, like hydrogen peroxide or linoleic acid-derived hydroperoxides, that have been described as ‘modulators’ of mycotoxin biosynthesis. This review addresses for the first time different studies reporting specific in vitro effects of such compounds on the biosynthesis of Fusarium mycotoxins. A better understanding of the natural processes limiting accumulation of trichothecenes in the plant will open the way to the development of novel breeding varieties with reduced ‘mycotoxin risk’.     

Ultrastructural and immunocytochemical investigation of pathogen development and host responses in resistant and susceptible wheat spikes infected by Fusarium culmorum

Pathogen development and host responses in wheat spikes of resistant and susceptible cultivars infected by Fusarium culmorum causing Fusarium head blight (FHB), were investigated by means of electron microscopy as well as immunogold labelling techniques. The studies revealed similarities in the infection process and the initial spreading of the pathogen in wheat spikes between resistant and susceptible cultivars. However, the pathogen’s development was obviously more slow in the resistant cultivars as in comparison to a susceptible one. The structural defence reactions such as the formation of thick layered appositions and large papillae were essentially more pronounced in the infected host tissues of the resistant cultivars, than in the susceptible one. β -1,3-glucan was detected in the appositions and papillae. Furthermore, immunogold labelling of lignin demonstrated that there were no differences in the lignin contents of the wheat spikes between susceptible and resistant cultivars regarding the uninoculated healthy tissue, but densities of lignin in host cell walls of the infected wheat spikes differed distinctly between resistant and susceptible cultivars. The lignin content in the cell walls of the infected tissues of the susceptible wheat cultivar increased slightly, while the lignin accumulated intensely in the host cell walls of the infected wheat spikes of the resistant cultivars. These findings indicate that lignin accumulation in the infected wheat spikes may play an important role in resistance to the spreading of the pathogen in the host tissues. Immunogold labelling of the Fusarium toxin DON in the infected lemma showed the same labelling patterns in the host tissues of resistant and susceptible cultivars. However, there were distinct differences in the toxin concentration between the tissues of the susceptible and resistant cultivars. At the early stage of infection, the labelling densities for DON in resistant cultivars were significantly lower than those in the susceptible one. The present study indicates that the FHB resistant cultivars are able to develop active defence reactions during infection and spreading of the pathogen in the host tissues. The lower accumulation of the toxin DON in the tissues of the infected spikes of resistant cultivars which results from the host’s defence mechanisms may allow more intensive defence responses to the pathogen by the host.     

拟南芥转录因子IDD4不同突变体对灰葡萄孢菌的抗性分析

为明确IDD家族IDD4基因在拟南芥Arabidopsis thaliana抵抗灰葡萄孢菌Botrytis cinerea侵染过程中的作用,通过统计病情指数检测拟南芥野生型（wild type,WT）植株、过表达植株IDD4-OE和缺失突变体idd4植株感染灰葡萄孢菌情况,利用组织染色检测叶片细胞死亡和H₂O₂的积累情况,采用实时荧光定量PCR（real-time quantitative-PT-PCR,qRT-PCR）技术分析灰葡萄孢菌肌动蛋白基因Bc. ACTIN在3种植株叶片中的表达情况,并施加0.1 mmol/L外源水杨酸（salicylic acid,SA）后测定IDD4-OE植株的病情指数。结果显示,不同株系对灰葡萄孢菌的抗性由高到低依次为idd4＞WT＞IDD4-OE,IDD4-OE植株中病原菌感染部位的寄主细胞死亡程度比idd4植株严重。染色结果表明,病原菌侵染拟南芥后4 h,接种部位已有H₂O₂积累。qRT-PCR反应结果显示,Bc. ACTIN在IDD4-OE中比在idd4植株中的表达水平更高,表明灰葡萄孢菌在IDD4-OE植株中的繁殖速率更快。对IDD4-OE植株外源施加SA后,其病情指数、Bc. ACTIN表达量与WT植株间均无显著差异,说明SA能将感病植株的抗性提高至WT植株的水平,表明IDD4作为负调控因子参与了拟南芥对灰葡萄孢菌的抗性调控,SA在其中发挥着重要作用。     

酵母pac1基因介导对葡萄B病毒的抗性

为明确广谱性抗病毒基因—酵母pac1基因对葡萄B病毒(Grapevine virus B,GVB)的抗性效果,通过农杆菌介导的遗传转化,将pac1基因导入西方烟37B,对转基因植株进行PCR鉴定及Southern blot分析,通过病毒摩擦接种观察症状以及实时荧光定量RT-PCR检测植株体内病毒含量,并对转基因植株抗病性进行初步鉴定。结果表明,目的基因pac1成功导入并整合至西方烟37B基因组,共获得10个转基因株系。不同株系的T1代烟草中阳性植株比例为16.7%~72.7%,表明目的基因可成功遗传到子代。接种病毒后转基因植株普遍延迟发病,但后期症状与非转基因对照相似,其中仅1个转基因株系B6具有不表现典型症状等抗性反应。接种植株病毒含量检测中,所有转基因植株均检测到病毒存在,但表现为抗病的B6株系中病毒含量显著低于非转基因对照,表明该转基因植株虽不能完全抵抗GVB侵染,但对GVB具有耐病性。     

Cultural characteristics, pathogenicity and genetic diversity of Fusarium oxysporum isolates from tobacco fields in Spain

Several formae speciales of Fusarium oxysporum are capable to produce disease in tobacco plants. Different authors have classified those isolates as a forma specialis or a race within on the basis of the severity of disease and host specificity. Fusarium wilt of tobacco plant in Extremadura (central Spain) tobacco fields have been recorded in the last years and F. oxysporum was isolated from symptomatic plants. The aim of our study was to characterize these F. oxysporum populations. For this purpose, the in vitro spore production and growth and the virulence (severity of disease) have been tested. Although all isolates behaved as pathogen, the virulence of isolates was different. The differences in growth could not be correlated with other characteristics but the two isolates with scarce spore production have also behaved as the weakest pathogen. We have analyzed intergenic spacer (IGS) region polymorphism of ribosomal DNA and random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers to assess the genetic diversity within F. oxysporum isolates. These molecular analyses showed two major groups with different physiological capabilities that could reflect two different lineages. One group was characterized by medium–high sporulation, high virulence and the same IGS-RFLP pattern. The other group was more heterogeneous featuring low–medium sporulation and variable virulence and growth. This first experimental approach to pathogen population could be a good starting point for further studies including non-pathogenic isolates and a larger number of pathogen that could clarify if there are two or more genetic lineages.     

Extract of Hedera helix induces resistance on apple rootstock M26 similar to Acibenzolar-S-methyl against Fire Blight (Erwinia amylovora)

The potential of acibenzolar-S-methyl (Benzo [1,2,3]thiadiazole-7-carbothioic acid-S-methyl ester, ASM; Bion 50 WG) and of an extract of Hedera helix, to protect M26 apple rootstocks against fire blight was determined under controlled conditions. Marked differences were observed in the rate and extent of multiplication as well as in pathogen cell viability between control and ASM and H. helix-treated rootstocks. Although the pathogen multiplied abundantly in the plant tissue of water-treated rootstocks and showed severe damage, ASM and the plant extract of H. helix applied prior to inoculation with the causal agent of fire blight, E. amylovora (strain 7/74), suppressed disease development and bacterial multiplication. Physiological observations of ASM and plant extract-treated rootstocks indicated that restriction of pathogen colonization in plant tissue was correlated with a pronounced increase of peroxidase (POX) and chitinase activity. Furthermore, physiological changes caused by these treatments in host cells were characterized by POX labeling methods with SDS-Page electrophoresis. Differences in expression of the POX and protein bands were observed in tissues of plants treated with different inducers. POX activity was determined by the presence of three strong bands in plant extract-treated leaves, two strong bands and one very weak band of about 20.1 and 43 kDa were visible in ASM-treated leaves. Evidence is provided that ASM, as well as extract of H. helix are equally capable of inducing of resistance responses in M26 apple rootstock, which result in an increased resistance to E. amylovora—the fire blight pathogen. These findings demonstrate that both treatments have the ability to induce the activation of defense genes leading to the accumulation of structural and biochemical activities at strategic sites, and these can be associated with induction of resistance against fire-blight.     

Molecular characterization and in planta detection of Fusarium moniliforme endopolygalacturonase isoforms

The activation of Fusarium moniliforme endopolygalacturonase (endoPG) was studied during infection of maize plants. EndoPG is a plant cell wall degrading enzyme that cleaves the pectin component causing cell death. The authors generated several hybridoma cell lines producing endoPG specific monoclonal antibodies. One monoclonal antibody was selected and successfully used in Western blotting analysis to detect F. moniliforme endoPG secretion in vitro and in planta. Two F. moniliforme strains (FC-l0 and 62264) were used for the studies. Both strains revealed the expression of a single endoPG in vitro as in planta. EndoPG from strain FC-10 presented four isoforms whereas only two isoforms were revealed in the endoPG from strain 62264. Differences were also found in the sequences of the two endoPG genes indicating the presence of endoPG variability among F. moniliforme strains.     

番茄枯萎病菌和青枯病菌拮抗细菌的评价

为筛选出对番茄枯萎病和青枯病有较好防效的生防菌,采用平板对峙法,以番茄枯萎病菌Fusarium oxysporum和番茄青枯病菌Ralstonia solanacearum为靶标菌,从江苏沭阳、宿迁、溧水及内蒙古海拉尔分离到的2 062株细菌菌株中筛选拮抗菌株,并采用平板对峙法、拮抗菌液灌根法、分子生物学方法进行拮抗物质检测、盆栽试验及种属鉴定。结果表明:从2 062株细菌中共筛选到21株对番茄枯萎病和青枯病具有很强拮抗作用的菌株,均能分泌蛋白酶,具有解磷作用;不能分泌几丁质酶和纤维素酶,仅4株细菌能分泌嗜铁素。拮抗细菌SY290对番茄枯萎病和番茄青枯病防效最高,分别达到74.2%和75.0%,SQ728和LS536次之,但防效均大于60%。结合各菌株形态特征、16S r DNA与gyr-B序列分析结果,菌株SY177、SY290和SQ728鉴定为解淀粉芽胞杆菌Bacillus amyloliquefaciens,菌株LS536为枯草芽胞杆菌B.subtilis。     

Engineering flax with increased flavonoid content and thus Fusarium resistance

Flavonoids are a group of secondary plant metabolites important for plant growth and development, and thus the regulation of their biosynthesis is of special interest. We used a transgenic approach for flavonoid content manipulation. The multigene construct contained the cDNAs for chalcone synthase (CHS), and chalcone isomerase (CHI) and dihydroflavonol reductase (DFR) were prepared. Following flax plants transformation, the levels of the products of the enzyme overproduction were assessed in leaves and seeds. The simultaneous expression of genes resulted in a significant increase in the levels of flavanones, flavones, flavonols and anthocyanins, suggesting those three overproducing enzymes efficiently control the flavonoid route of the phenylpropanoid pathway.The increase in the flavonoid content in the transgenic flax plants might be the reason for observed, enhanced antioxidant capacity of those plants. The increased antioxidative properties of transgenic plants lead to improved resistance to Fusarium, the main pathogen of flax.The changes in phenylpropanoids accumulation in transgenic plants affect cell wall carbohydrate content. Immunochemical studies revealed significant increase in carbohydrates, constituents of pectin and hemicellulose. Since pectins contribute to flax stem retting, the compounds increase might affect fibre production. An increase in pectin and hemicellulose content leads to enhanced disease resistance of those plants.     

西瓜与枯萎病菌非亲和互作相关基因的分离及表达分析

 从整体水平阐明西瓜对西瓜枯萎病菌1号生理小种的抗病分子机制和抗病相关基因的表达特征,以高抗枯萎病菌1号生理小种的西瓜品种“卡红(Calhoun Gray)”为试材,接种西瓜枯萎病菌和蒸馏水的根尖组织作为测验方(Tester)和驱动方(Driver),构建西瓜枯萎病菌胁迫的SSH-cDNA正向文库。利用反向 Northern 斑点杂交技术对文库中克隆进行杂交筛选。随机测序300个阳性克隆,序列比对分析,利用RT-PCR技术分析抗病相关基因的表达特性。259条EST成功测序,167条与已知基因具有较高的同源性,占全部ESTs的65.5%,其中与抗病和防卫相关的有64条23种,占24.7%;卡红对枯萎病菌1号生理小种的抗性相关基因主要涉及抗病信号传导、抗病防卫、转录因子、次生代谢合成和细胞保护等方面;Aquaporin和Peroxidase基因在接种后表达量均增加。Calhoun Gray对枯萎病菌侵染作出的反应是全方位多方面的,抗病相关基因主要集中在系统获得性抗性反应中,获得了一些Calhoun Gray与野生西瓜PI296341在与枯萎病生理小种1互作中差异表达的基因,为深入研究西瓜与枯萎病菌互作的分子机制以及关键基因的功能分析奠定基础。     

基于链特异性RNA-seq的禾谷镰刀菌全生活史转录组分析

为明确植物病原真菌禾谷镰刀菌Fusarium graminearum全生活史的转录组特征和基因表达模式,采用生物信息学技术对其生活史不同阶段15个时期或组织的链特异性RNA-seq数据进行分析。结果表明,共有8 106个基因在所有时期均有表达,为禾谷镰刀菌生活史核心基因,占总基因数的47.2%;有性生殖和侵染过程中表达的基因数相对较多,其中有性生殖后期表达的基因数最多,达15 221个;无性产孢和侵染小麦穗过程中基因表达水平整体较高,而分生孢子中基因表达水平最低。在燕麦培养基上禾谷镰刀菌气生菌丝的基因表达模式与侵染过程中的基因表达模式较为相似,而与营养生长菌丝的基因表达模式差异较大。该菌次生代谢物合成特征酶基因和分泌蛋白基因的表达模式均分成3类,即分别在侵染、营养生长和有性生殖过程上调表达,暗示其在生活史不同阶段的特异性功能。     

Soybean plants expressing an active oligomeric oxalate oxidase from the wheat gf-2.8 (germin) gene are resistant to the oxalate-secreting pathogen Sclerotina sclerotiorum

Sclerotinia stem rot (SSR) caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) De Bary is a serious fungal disease of soybean. Senescing petals provide a starting nutrient source for the invasion of healthy tissue by the advancing oxalic acid secreting fungal hyphae. Since oxalic acid is a major pathogenicity factor of SSR, transgenic soybean capable of degrading oxalic acid may be resistant to the pathogen. Transgenic soybean plants were produced byAgrobacterium -mediated transformation with the wheat germin gene (gf-2.8) encoding an oligomeric protein, oxalate oxidase (OxO), which oxidizes oxalic acid to carbon dioxide and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). Transgenic soybean homozygous for 35S- gf-2.8 produced an approx. 130 kDa protein indistinguishable from wheat germin, and with OxO activity. OxO activity was prominent in cell walls proximal to the site of pathogen attack. The transgenics had greatly reduced disease progression and lesion length following cotyledon and stem inoculation with S. sclerotiorum indicating that the germin gene product conferred resistance to SSR. This is the first report of plant resistance to the fungal pathogen S. sclerotiorum in transgenic plants expressing OxO.     

解淀粉芽胞杆菌EA19菌株对小麦赤霉病的防治效果

为明确解淀粉芽胞杆菌Bacillus amylolyticus EA19菌株对小麦赤霉病的防治效果,室内测定EA19菌株及其发酵液对小麦赤霉病菌Fusarium asiaticum菌落生长、孢子萌发、子囊壳形成的影响,以及在室内离体麦穗上的防治效果,并进行了田间小区防治试验。室内试验测定结果表明,EA19菌株发酵液对小麦赤霉病菌菌落生长和分生孢子的萌发具有显著的抑制作用,在室内离体麦穗上的防治效果可达80.0%,对子囊壳形成无显著影响。田间小区防治试验结果表明,在添加紫外保护剂抗坏血酸的条件下,EA19菌株发酵液和菌体悬浮液对赤霉病均有显著的防治效果,其中EA19菌株发酵液的防治效果可达81.2%。EA19菌株喷雾粉可湿性粉剂对赤霉病的防治效果可达67.4%,能使小麦籽粒中脱氧镰刀菌烯醇毒素含量显著降低36.8%,与50%多菌灵可湿性粉剂的效果无显著差异。表明EA19菌株在生产上防治赤霉病具有较大的开发应用潜力。     

糖基转移酶基因TaUGT7分子表达特征及抗赤霉病作用分析

为研究小麦UDP-葡萄糖基转移酶7(UDP-glycosyltransferase 7,TaUGT7)的抗赤霉病功能,利用DNAMAN 6.0软件对Ta UGT7及其同源蛋白进行序列比对,应用实时荧光定量PCR(quantitative real-time PCR,qRT-PCR)技术分析经赤霉菌Fusarium graminearum和脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇（deoxynivalenol,DON）处理后的苏麦3号小穗中TaUGT7基因的表达特征,利用基因枪在洋葱表皮细胞瞬时表达TaUGT7-eGFP进行亚细胞定位,采用农杆菌介导法在小麦品种Fielder中过量表达TaUGT7基因并进行赤霉病抗性鉴定。结果表明,TaUGT7在氨基酸序列上与已知赤霉病抗性相关UGT相似性较低;TaUGT7在赤霉菌接种24 h后开始被诱导表达,在DON处理2 h后逐步被诱导表达;Ta UGT7蛋白亚细胞定位于细胞膜和细胞核中;qRT-PCR检测发现,TaUGT7在8株独立的过表达转基因株系中均有不同程度的上调表达;与野生型对照相比,过表达株系TaUGT7-395和TaUGT7-457中的平均病小穗率显著下降。...     

咯菌腈羧酸衍生物内吸传导性及对香蕉枯萎病的防效测定

为研发用于防治香蕉枯萎病的维管组织导向杀菌剂,基于植物韧皮部“离子井”效应对非内吸杀菌剂咯菌腈进行弱酸化结构修饰,在蓖麻模型上完成韧皮部输导性筛选和机制验证,通过盆栽试验研究咯菌腈羧酸衍生物在香蕉植株上的输导分布,并测定衍生物对香蕉枯萎病的防效。结果表明：羧酸基团引入使咯菌腈衍生物在蓖麻幼苗上表现出韧皮部输导性,证明存在pH依赖的“离子井”效应机制;盆栽试验结果显示,衍生物1a在被叶片吸收后能向下传递到香蕉植株球茎和根部,并能够降解释放出咯菌腈,对香蕉枯萎病的防效为54.5%,显著高于咯菌腈原药处理组的防效6.5%。表明基于韧皮部“离子井”效应的结构修饰是香蕉维管组织导向杀菌剂研发的有效途径。     

Local and systemic resistance to fungal pathogens triggered by an AVR9-mediated hypersensitive response in tomato and oilseed rape carrying the Cf-9 resistance gene

Tomato and transgenic oilseed rape plants expressing the Cf-9 resistance gene develop a hypersensitive response (HR) after injection of the corresponding Avr9 gene product. It was investigated whether induction of a HR conferred resistance to different fungal pathogens in tomato and oilseed rape. Induction of an AVR9 mediated HR at the pathogen infection site delayed the development of the biotrophs Oidium lycopersicum in tomato and Erysiphe polygoni in oilseed rape, but enhanced the development of the necrotrophs Botrytis cinerea and Alternaria solani in tomato and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in oilseed rape. Interestingly, delayed fungal disease development was observed in plant tissues surrounding the HR lesion regardless of whether a necrotrophic or biotrophic pathogen was used. In tomato, AVR9 injection induced systemic expression of PR1, PR2 and PR3 defence genes but did not induce systemic resistance to O. lycopersicum, B. cinerea or A. solani. In oilseed rape, AVR9 injection temporarily induced systemic resistance to Leptosphaeria maculans and E. polygoni, but did not induce detectable systemic expression of PR1, PR2 or Cxc750. These results give new insights into the potential uses of an induced HR to engineer disease resistance.     

马铃薯转GhABF2转录因子苗耐盐性研究

以转GhABF2转录因子马铃薯试管苗为材料,进行苗期耐盐性研究,以期了解该作物对逆境的适应性。实验结果表明:在不同浓度NaCl胁迫条件下,转GhABF2基因株系材料(T1、T2)与对照未转基因材料(WT)植株的干鲜重、生理生化指标的变化趋势基本一致,就各性状值的变化来看,转基因植株表现出了明显的抗逆性。随着NaCl胁迫浓度的增加,与对照非转基因植物WT相比,转GhABF2基因材料T1、T2的生物量显著增加;WT、T1、T2的叶绿素含量均随着盐浓度的增加而降低;可溶性糖、丙二醛、脯氨酸,SOD酶活性、POD酶活性均随着盐胁迫浓度的增加而升高;可溶性蛋白含量随着胁迫程度的加重略有下降,但变化趋势不显著。从植株的生长状态、生理生化等性状指标方面来看,转基因植株比对照非转基因植株表现出了更强的抗逆性。     

Development of PCR assays to Tri7 and Tri13 trichothecene biosynthetic genes, and characterisation of chemotypes of Fusarium graminearum, Fusarium culmorum and Fusarium cerealis

Fusarium graminearum, Fusarium culmorum and Fusarium cerealis are major causal agents of Fusarium Head Blight (scab) which is a disease of global significance in all cereal growing areas. These fungi produce trichothecene mycotoxins, principally nivalenol (NIV) and deoxynivalenol (DON). Genes Tri13 and Tri7 from the trichothecene biosynthetic gene cluster convert DON to NIV (Tri13) and NIV to 4-acetyl-NIV (Tri7). We have developed positive–negative PCR assays based on these two genes, which accurately indicate a DON or NIV chemotype in F. graminearum, F. culmorum and F. cerealis. These assays are useful in assessing the risk of trichothecene contamination, and can be informative in epidemiological studies. All NIV chemotype isolates studied have functional copies of both Tri13 and Tri7, and all DON-producing isolates have both genes disrupted or deleted. We have identified several mutations in these genes, which are conserved across F. graminearum lineage, RAPD and SCAR groupings and between the three species. There appears to be evidence of inter-species hybridisation within the trichothecene biosynthetic gene cluster.