Status of tiger and leopard in Rajaji-Corbett Conservation Unit, northern India

Rajaji-Corbett Tiger Conservation Unit (RCTCU), in northern India, is one of the 11 Level-I Tiger Conservation Units (TCU) identified in the Indian subcontinent for the long-term conservation of the tiger. This TCU of about 7500 km² stretches from the Yamuna River in the west to Sharda River in the east and includes portions of the Outer Himalaya and the Shivalik hills. Little less than one third of this TCU comes under protected area status (Rajaji National Park—820 km², and Corbett Tiger Reserve—1286 km²) and the rest are under 12 reserve forest divisions, five of which have largely been converted into monoculture plantations. Between November 1999 and March 2000, we evaluated the status of tiger and leopard in RCTCU by counting the number of different pug marks on 3-5 km transect walks along 52 dry stream beds (‘raus’), for a total distance of 479 km in these reserve forests and plantations. People and cattle seen along the transects, were also counted, as an index of disturbance. In this TCU, the tiger occurs in three isolated populations: between the west bank of River Ganges and River Yamuna, from the east bank of Ganges to Kathgodam-Haldwani-Lalkuan Highway and between the Highway and River Sharda. Owing to increasing biotic pressures, the tiger has become rare in Rajaji-Corbett corridor and has become extinct in four divisions. There is a growing threat of further degradation and fragmentation of its habitat. To implement a recovery programme, we suggest several management measures such as control of poaching, resettlement of local tribes (gujjars) and five villages, creation and strengthening of forest corridors, conversion of monocultures into polyculture plantations and establishment of several mini-core areas including Nandaur Valley National Park. We recommend the reliable and user-friendly method used by us to evaluate and monitor the status of leopard and tiger in this conservation unit. A suggested Greater Corbett Tiger Reserve (2000 km²) should be kept as inviolate as possible.     

Population declines of the magpie Pica pica in Huntingdonshire and other parts of eastern England

Since the second world war, the magpie Pica pica is known to have suffered population declines in parts of eastern England. To understand more fully the reasons for these declines, the status and fate of the magpie population in the County of Huntingdonshire (now part of Cambridgeshire) have been examined in detail.Some decline occurred prior to the mid 1950s, associated with changes in habitat. During the late 1950s and early 1960s, the breeding population decreased markedley to perhaps about 5% of its pre-war level. Mortality caused by dieldrin and other cyclodiene insecticides was the most likely single cause of this sudden decline. The population remained at a low level until about 1974. Since then there has been some recovery although the magpie is still relatively rare. Failure to recover more rapidly may be linked with the sedentary nature of this species precluding any significant recovery via immigration.     

The recent decline of a New Zealand endemic: how and why did populations of Archey's frog Leiopelma archeyi crash over 1996-2001?

Dramatic changes have been documented in New Zealand's vertebrate faunas since human settlement, involving major declines and extinctions, but over recent years few species have declined in numbers so rapidly as the terrestrial Archey's frog Leiopelma archeyi (Anura: Leiopelmatidae). Long-term monitoring over more than 20 years revealed a major population reduction of the species over 1996-2001 and L. archeyi is now classified as Nationally Critical under the New Zealand threat classification system. The decline progressed northwards in the Coromandel ranges, and mostly larger (female) frogs survived. On a 100 m² study plot at Tapu Ridge, annual population estimates averaged 433 frogs (SE ±32) over 1984-1994, declining by 88% to average 53 frogs (SE ±8) over 1996-2002. A mean annual survival rate of 82% for most years declined to 33% over 1994-1997. There is mounting evidence to suggest that disease is the major agent of decline, supported by (1) the rapidity and severity of decline, (2) the progressive (south to north) nature of decline, and (3) finding frogs with chytriodiomycosis from Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis at the time of decline. Surprisingly, sympatric populations of the semi-aquatic Leiopelma hochstetteri have not declined dramatically, nor has a western population of L. archeyi at Whareorino, despite chytridiomycosis occurring in some frogs there. Sustaining and restoring populations of L. archeyi in New Zealand raises major challenges for conservation management.     

Why are there fewer signs of mink in England? Considering multiple hypotheses

Understanding the causes that determine the spread and subsequent population trends of invasive species is important as it can help predict and manage their impact, as well as advance the theory of invasion. The American mink Mustela vison is a riparian mustelid and an invasive species in several countries. Mink have been introduced to England in the early decades of the last century and have been expanding their range until the mid-eighties. Since then, however, the number of sites occupied by mink has been declining. We investigated three possible causes of such a decline: (1) A downtrend of the fur farming industry; (2) An increase of European polecats Mustela putorius; (3) An increase of Eurasian otters Lutra lutra. Mink trends were derived from data collected by the National Otter Survey, a large-scale long-term survey of the whole of England from 1977 to 2002. We discuss how the observed decline in the number of sites occupied by mink may be due to a combination of an actual decrease in the distribution and density of mink and to a change in the focus of mink activities away from water, rather than to a change in their marking behaviour. Taken together, our results suggest that the decline of mink is related to an increase in the native otter population through interspecific competition, although at a local level also other factors may be important. As the otter population is still increasing, it is likely that the number of sites occupied by mink will continue to decline, a process that may be beneficial to aquatic and semi-aquatic species suffering from mink predation.     

Capture of Particulate Pollution by Trees: A Comparison of Species Typical of Semi-Arid Areas (Ficus Nitida and Eucalyptus Globulus) with European and North American Species

Particulate pollution is a serious concern in developed countries especially in urban and suburban areas where it has adverse effects on human health, exacerbating a wide range of respiratory and vascular illnesses. Data are now available which indicate that similar problems probably occur in countries in transition and may indeed be worse where national air quality standards have been neither set nor monitored. Recently a variety of approaches using both wind tunnel and field measurements have suggested that trees can significantly reduce such adverse effects through their ability to capture pollutant particles. It is clear that species choice, planting design and location relative to pollution source are critical in determining the effectiveness of particle capture by trees. Here we present relative deposition velocities and capture efficiencies of five species used widely in woodland of urban and periurban areas of Europe (Quercus petraea (oak), Alnus glutinosa (alder), Fraxinus excelsior (ash), Acer pseudo-platanus (sycamore) and Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas fir)), and for two species being used increasingly in semi-arid regions, (Ficus nitida (weeping fig) and Eucalyptus. globulus (Eucalyptus)). These data are for species not previously worked on and measurements were made at three windspeeds. Deposition velocities and capture efficiencies are compared with those published for other tree species, with the values of deposition velocity ranging from 0.1 to 0.3 cm s^-1 at a windspeed of 3 m s^-1 to maximum values 2.9 cm s^-1 at 9 m s^-1 windspeed. Species with more complex stem structure and smaller leaves had greater relative deposition velocities. The use of such data in models to guide species choice and planting design in order to maximise particle removal from urban air are considered.     

The status and conservation of the butterfly Plebejus argus L. (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) in North West Britain

A survey was made of the declining butterfly, Plebejus argus L., in North West Britain in 1983. Twenty-six colonies were found on limestone grassland, many of them large. Twenty colonies were found on heathland, but most were relatively small. One large colony that inhabits mossland was rediscovered. P. argus occupies early succesional habitat at low altitude, predominantly on sheltered southerly facing slopes. Through biotope loss and fragmentation and declining traditional management, suitable habitat is created only sporadically in modern Britain. Some of these habitats (especially on heathland) are short lived. Thus, many colonies are transient. As P. argus forms closed colonies and rarely flies far, the decline appears to be a compound effect of reduced amounts of suitable habitat and inability to colonise them: the distances are often too great. Active conservation is required to check the decline of P. argus, especially habitat management and also introduction to suitable habitat now beyond the dispersal range of P. argus. Recommendations are made.     

Effects of the 1982–1983 El Nino on Humboldt penguin colonies in Peru

The Humboldt penguin Spheniscus humboldti is endemic to the Peruvian Current which flows northward along the coast of Chile and Peru. This species has greatly diminished from its former abundance.The coast of Peru is characterised by high biological productivity which concentrates fish such as the anchovy Engraulis ringens, the main prey item of marine predators including seabirds. In years of the abnormal oceanographic conditions of El Nino, the schools of anchovies become unavailable to the seabirds and they disperse in search of food. Massive mortality, especially of juveniles, results and there is nest desertation and lack of reproduction.This paper describes the effects of the 1982–1983 El Nino on Humboldt penguin colonies in Peru. There has been an overall population decline of 65% and the surviving population in 1984 was estimated to be between 2100 and 3000 adults. Although El Nino is a periodic event and the Humboldt penguin has evolved to adapt to such unpredictable changes, the environment has now been altered by man. Under these circumstances, the 1982–1983 El Nino has contributed to placing this species in a critical position.     

Understanding the decline and extinction of monarchs (Aves) in Polynesian Islands

Understanding the decline and extinction of species has become critical to conservation biology. The five monarch species of the genus Pomarea, endemic to the southeastern Pacific, are all listed as threatened. Introduced mammals and birds are believed to be responsible for their rarefaction. We analyzed the historical and current distribution of monarchs and introduced animals and found no relation between presence of Polynesian rats (Rattus exculans) and monarch distribution. There was a highly significant correlation between the arrival of the black rat (Rattus rattus) and the decline and extinction of monarch populations. The extinction of monarch populations after colonization by black rats tended to take longer on larger islands than on smaller ones. On islands without black rats, monarchs persisted even where forests have been reduced by more than 75%. After an island was colonized by black rats the number of monarch pairs with young decreased dramatically. Eggs in artificial nests placed in sites used by monarchs were only preyed upon by black rats. No eggs were preyed upon by Polynesian rats (Rattus exulans) or introduced birds. Monarch nests were mainly placed on horizontal branches inside the canopy and were more accessible than nests of Polynesian warbler (Acrocephalus caffer), a species still locally abundant. Warbler nests were placed higher up on vertical branches near the top of trees. These studies suggest that nest predation by black rats has been the main cause of monarch decline. However observations of direct aggression of adult monarchs by introduced red-vented bulbuls (Pycnonotus cafer), especially when monarchs raise their young, suggest that introduced birds could aggravate the decline of monarch populations already weakened by black rats. We discuss the practical implications of these findings for monarch conservation.     

No evidence of general decline in an amphibian community of Southern France

We investigated long term changes in an amphibian community in the Languedoc area of Southern France by comparing results of a survey of 56 ponds made in the early 1970s with results of a survey of the same localities in 2001. Based on the frequency of new occurrences and disappearances of species in the sample ponds, there is no sign of a general decline of amphibians in this area. Most species showed non-significant variation in frequency of occurrence or had increased. “Green frogs” (Rana perezi/ridibunda/kl. grafi) showed clear signs of decline, but this is a local phenomenon rather than a decline at the regional scale. Pelodytes punctatus probably declined also, possibly due to its sensitivity to fish introduction. The species richness in the ponds has also remained stable except in ponds where fish have been introduced. The only adverse impact of human activities that we could detect was thus the introduction of fish, which had a significantly adverse effect on amphibian species richness.     

Cultivated emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccon Schrank), an old crop with promising future: a review

Cultivated emmer wheat, Triticum dicoccon Schrank, a tetraploid species with hulled grain, has been largely cultivated during seven millennia in the Middle-East, Central and West Asia, and Europe. It has been largely replaced by hulless species and is now a minor crop, with the exception of some countries like India, Ethiopia and Yemen, where its grain is used for preparing traditional foods. Nutritional qualities and specific taste and flavor of emmer wheat products have led to a recent development of the cultivation in some European countries. Emmer wheat also possesses valuable traits of resistance to pests and diseases and tolerance to abiotic stresses and is increasingly used as a reservoir of useful genes in wheat breeding. In the present article, a review concerning taxonomy, diversity and history of cultivation of emmer wheat is reported. Grain characteristics and valuable agronomic traits are described. Some successful examples of emmer wheat utilization for the development of durum or bread wheat cultivars are examined, and the perspectives in using emmer wheat as health food and for the development of new breeding germplasm are discussed.     

Metapopulation dynamics and threatened species management: Why does the broad-toothed rat (Mastacomys fuscus) persist?

Many species that exist patchily across the landscape are declining due to incremental losses of their constituent sub-populations and increasing isolation of those that remain. For threatened species with such patchy metapopulation structure, it is particularly important to identify key habitat patches and understand what factors govern their occupancy so that their management can be targeted and effective. In this paper, we describe the spatial and temporal distribution of an endangered population of broad-toothed rats (Mastacomys fuscus) at Barrington Tops, New South Wales, and model its dynamics using metapopulation theory. The study population occurs patchily in swamps on the Barrington Plateau. Using faecal pellet searches, live-trapping and data from previous surveys, we identified 12 swamps where M. fuscus persists and 13 where there has been a history of colonisation and extinction. The species now appears to be entirely absent from seven of these latter swamps. Using logistic regression and model selection procedures, we found the strongest predictor of the presence of M. fuscus to be proximity to the nearest occupied swamp. Persistence declined strongly with swamp isolation, probably due to low success of individuals dispersing through the intervening habitat. These patterns support the interpretation that swamp patches at Barrington Tops contain a functioning but fragile metapopulation of M. fuscus. We predict continued loss of remaining sub-populations in peripheral swamps if current dynamics continue, and recommend research to identify the factors that are limiting dispersal and re-colonisation so that the species’ decline can be slowed and reversed.     

Rapid decline of the volcanically threatened Montserrat oriole

Prior to 1995, the Montserrat oriole (Icterus oberi) was confined to ca. 30 km² of hill forest on the Lesser Antillean island of Montserrat, but was not listed as globally threatened. Since then, the eruption of the Soufriere Hills volcano has destroyed more than half of the species’ range. Recent intensive monitoring has indicated that the species has also declined dramatically within the remaining intact forest, and is now critically threatened. Different monitoring and analytical methods indicate a decline of 8-52% p.a., and a remaining global population of ca. 100-400 pairs. This case study justifies the use of the restricted range criterion in designating threatened species. Despite intensive monitoring and the use of several analytical methods, it has proved surprisingly difficult to estimate the magnitude of the oriole’s decrease, or to control for potential artefacts in the census method. We discuss the reasons for this. The cause(s) of population decline in the intact forest are unclear, though two hypotheses appear plausible: a decrease in arthropod food, a result of volcanic ash fall, and an increase in nest predation as a result of increases in populations of opportunistic omnivores.     

Genotyping-by-sequencing reveals the origin of the Tunisian relatives of cultivated carrot (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Daucus carota</Emphasis>)

Tunisia, other countries in northwestern Africa, and the Iberian Peninsula, represent a center of diversity of Daucus. The genus traditionally has included about 20–25 species worldwide, but a recent molecular study redefined and expanded Daucus to include representatives from nine other genera. By this classification, Daucus now contains about 40 species, with some of them having winged fruits in addition to its traditionally recognized spiny fruits. The taxonomy of Daucus in Tunisia has recently been studied with morphological data, concluding that D. carota subsp. capillifolius is a subspecies that co-occurs and crosses with subsp. carota. The present study extends these findings with additional data from Genotyping-by-Sequencing (GBS) from 33 Tunisian accessions of D. carota (93 individuals with two to three replicates per accession), including the first collections of subsp. gummifer from Tunisia. Placed in the context of additional GBS data, D. carota subsp. gummifer has separate origins from other collections of subsp. carota in Tunisia and/or immediately adjacent areas to the north in Italy or its surrounding islands. Our results add support to the utility of large SNP datasets for species-level phylogenetic studies in Daucus.     

Decline and extirpation of an endangered Panamanian stream frog population (Craugastor punctariolus) due to an outbreak of chytridiomycosis

We conducted a mark-recapture study of three subpopulations of Craugastor punctariolus at a mid-elevation site in central Panama between 1999 and 2005. The study spans a period over which the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) was absent from the site, invaded the site and decimated all amphibian populations, and now persists. We quantified natural demographic parameters prior to and during an event of mass mortality due to chytridiomycosis caused by Bd. Prior to the event of mass mortality, all three subpopulations of C. punctariolus were large (19-68 animals/200 m), showed a stable age-size distribution, and had high survival. All age-size classes of this species co-occurred on boulder clumps along streams, and adults showed high site fidelity and were likely territorial. Following detection of Bd at this site in late September 2004, four dead C. punctariolus were found infected with Bd and all three subpopulations completely disappeared from this site within 2 months. The association of all age-size classes with microhabitats appropriate for survival and growth of Bd likely contributed to the rapid and severe degree of decline of this species at this site. These data provide insight into the patterns and mechanisms of decline within a species due to Bd.     

History and present status of populations of harp and hooded seals

The biology of harp (Pagophilus groenlandicus Erxleben) and hooded (Cystophora cristata Erxleben) seals is described. These abundant species inhabit the seasonally-shifting pack ice of the North Atlantic. Intensive hunting over 150 years depleted but did not exterminate three harp seal populations, which initially may have totalled some 9 million animals and may now total some 3 millions. All are now hunted under quotas and other restrictions. One population is rising and the other two, while probably still declining slowly, are probably close to stability. Knowledge of hooded seals is less advanced; one of three major sub-populations has only recently been rediscovered after 150 years. These populations are more closely interconnected than populations of harp seals, and management of hooded seals seems likely to need a wider framework than exists at present.     

Responses of oribatid mites to tree girdling and nutrient addition in boreal coniferous forests

Tree girdling has been experimentally used to stop the allocation of carbohydrates from the canopy to tree roots and their associated ectomycorrhizal (EM) mycelia. We used three already established girdling experiments in northern Sweden, one in a Pinus sylvestris stand and two in Picea abies stands, to determine the effect of tree girdling on soil-living oribatid mites. These mites often feed on fungal hyphae, but it is not known to what extent they feed on EM or saprotrophic fungi. We hypothesised that a presumed decline in EM fungi after girdling would strongly reduce EM-feeding specialists and, correspondingly, reduce total abundance and species richness of oribatids in girdled plots. Tree girdling resulted in a significant decline in total abundance of oribatid mites in the two spruce stands, which was assumed to be linked to the decline in EM fungi, but not in the pine stand. Species richness decreased in girdled plots in one of the spruce forests. The decline in total abundance in girdled spruce stands was primarily dependent on a significant and consistent population decrease in Oppiella nova, which was the most abundant oribatid mite in the ungirdled spruce plots. Its abundance after girdling was only 8–18% of that in ungirdled spruce plots. In the pine stand, O. nova had much lower abundance than in the spruce stands, and despite a tendency to decline in number after girdling also in the pine stand, it had a minor effect on total abundance. These results suggest that O. nova may be dependent on EM fungi in spruce forest soils, whereas the dependence on EM fungi in pine forest soils is less evident.     

Earthworm (Lumbricidae) diversity in the Central Balkans: An evaluation of their conservation status

In this paper we summarize the current knowledge on earthworm diversity in the central part of the Balkans, in the State of Serbia. Up to now, 71 species and 8 subspecies, belonging to 18 genera, are known from investigated territory. Our aim was to produce a single priority list for earthworm conservation, particularly as the Balkan countries did not have their own Red Lists for earthworms and none of the species had a legally protected status. The list underlines the diversity of earthworms, zoogeographical position as well as category of threat. The analysis based on the IUCN (2001) Red List Categories shows that 17 of 79 taxa are Critically Endangered (5 species are serious Critically Endangered, but 12 species are only suspect for the Critically Endangered category), 9 species are Endangered and 14 species are Vulnerable. Serious candidates for their inclusion in CR category within the IUCN (2001) Red List are: Cernosvitovia biserialis, Dendrobaena kozuvensis, Lumbricus improvisus, Serbiona kosowensis montenegrina and Serbiona serbica. Of all registered earthworms, 34 taxa (43.1%) were identified only as endemic species. Unfortunately, most of the high-priority species are endemic (23 taxa). The position of the Central Balkans contributes to the great biodiversity of earthworms on its territory, but the fact that nearly 36% of its lumbricids are threatened is a strong signal that action is required.     

Soil Acidification and Decline of Trees in Forests Within the Precincts of Shrines in Kyoto (Japan)

The historical Japanese city of Kyoto boasts a great many old Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines, many of which are surrounded by sizable forests that have long been preserved as sacred forests. However, acidic deposition has been fallen on the forests in Kyoto for many years. For this study, we conducted soil surveys and investigated the extent of decline of the trees in two Shinto shrines as historic monuments of ancient Kyoto. Our study revealed clear decline in two key tree species (Cryptomeria japonica (Japanese cedar) and Chamaecyparis obtusa (Japanese cypress)) in both shrines, with some trees showing signs of mortality. The soil was acidic, with an average pH of 4.35. Nutrient salt content too was only about one tenth the national average, with exchangeable Ca (0.52 cequiv./kg) and Mg (0.23 cequiv./kg) for 0?C20 cm surface soil. The (Ca+Mg+K)/Al molar ratios were also very low, with 80% of all soil samples having a ratio of 10 or below. Such soil conditions are thought to hamper the sound growth of both Japanese cedar and Japanese cypress, and soil acidification is one of the most likely causes of the decline of temple and shrine forests in Kyoto.     

Declines in abundance and distribution of the ivory gull (Pagophila eburnea) in Arctic Canada

The ivory gull (Pagophila eburnea) is a seabird that inhabits Arctic oceans throughout the year, often in association with polar pack ice. It is rare (<14,000 breeding pairs globally) and remains one of the most poorly known seabird species in the world. Canada supports breeding populations of international significance, and residents of communities in the Canadian High Arctic currently observe fewer ivory gulls than they did in the 1980s. However, no population trend data existed for this species in Canada prior to this study. We initiated aerial surveys in July 2002 and 2003 of most known ivory gull colonies in Canada to assess current population levels. Forty two colonies were visited, 14 of which were new discoveries. We recorded an 80% decline in numbers of nesting ivory gulls. Several of the largest known colonies were completely extirpated and those that remained supported significantly fewer nesting birds than previously observed. Results were similar in both years despite some differences in local sea ice conditions, suggesting a numerical decline in the population and not simply annual fluctuations in colony occupation. Declines have occurred in all habitat types and across the known Canadian breeding range, suggesting that causes of the decline may be related to factors occurring during migration or on wintering grounds. We recommend that international efforts now be directed at assessing population status and trends of this species in other circumpolar countries.