A case study in conservation politics: California's coastline initiative

The people of the State of California (USA) have voted to put coastline development under strict State control; control had previously been vested in local communities, in so far as it had existed at all. The newly-established policy represents a major break with tradition, as government authority over zoning and other development control has previously always been vested in the local community. It also represents a major break with the American tradition of unguided growth and development, for scenic and recreational values were considered more important by the majority of voters. Analysis of voting patterns shows that the strongest support was found among urbanites without much coastal access, while the strongest opposition was found in rural coastal counties (which stand to lose money) and rural mountain counties (where developers fear the mountains may be regulated next).     

A biological survey of Aride Island nature reserve,Seychelles

Aride Island is one of the smaller granitic islands in the Republic of Seychelles in the Indian Ocean. The first permanent inhabitants settled before 1861 and since then man has extensively exploited the large seabird colonies on the island. In order to encourage more terns to lay, most of the trees on the island were coppiced annually. However, commercial exploitation and coppicing ceased in 1967 and in 1975 Aride was declared a Special Reserve by the Government of Seychelles. Two Oxford University Expeditions visited the island in 1975 and 1976 to complete a survey of the flora and fauna. The main objective of the survey was to collect baseline data for a monitoring programme so that the effectiveness of management policies could be ascertained in the future. The survey concluded that the status of most of the island's wildlife was satisfactory, although action needed to be taken to eliminate poaching, control certain introduced plants and to reduce disturbance of nesting seabirds to a minimum. The longer-term problems which may arise as a result of the regrowth of the trees are discussed.     

Decline in the distribution and abundance of flesh-footed shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) on Lord Howe Island, Australia

The flesh-footed shearwater (Puffinus carneipes) is a migratory seabird that ranges widely across the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The principal breeding populations are in Australia and New Zealand. The only breeding site in eastern Australia is on Lord Howe Island. Despite it being afforded a high level of legislative protection, the population on Lord Howe Island has declined substantially during the last few decades. The total extent of nesting habitat in 2002 was 24.3 ha, a reduction of 13.4 ha (35.6%) since 1978. Loss of nesting habitat was associated with increased urbanisation, the adverse impact of which extended beyond the footprint of buildings and gardens. In 2002, overall burrow density was 0.123 per m² and the total number of burrows was estimated to be 29,853 ± 5867, a decline of about 19.0% since 1978. A substantial decline in burrow density was evident in the colony where loss of habitat to urbanisation had been greatest. In 2002, 58% of burrows were occupied by breeding birds, and the total population size was estimated to be 17,462 breeding pairs. Breeding success (the proportion of eggs that produced fledglings) was 50%, but was lowest in the most urbanised colony. To avert further declines in the population of flesh-footed shearwaters on Lord Howe Island major changes in land use practices, enforced through appropriate legislation, are needed, together with reductions in the level of seabird bycatch in fisheries operations and in the amount of plastics that litter the world’s oceans.     

Can Uganda's gorillas survive?—A survey of the Bwindi Forest Reserve

The most detailed survey yet made of the numbers, distribution and conservation status of gorilla in the Bwindi Forest Reserve indicates a total population of 95–135 animals and a breeding population of only about 75. Within the Reserve the local people use an area more than twice as large as that used by the gorillas, and it is clear that gorillas avoid areas of human use. Conflict exists therefore between present human use of the reserve and gorilla conservation in Uganda. Small populations are especially vulnerable to extinction and since one of the primary aims of the Reserve is to provide a sanctuary for the gorilla, together with the other species of this immensely rich forest community, steps should be taken now to lessen the conflict. In particular it is recommended that the extent of all human use be reduced from the present 35–40% of the Reserve area to less than 20% as long as such use can be adequately controlled; if it cannot, National Park status should be considered; that no further access roads be built; that mechanised felling never be allowed; and that the Reserve be extended in the northwest to include extra gorilla habitat and to protect an important watershed in the region.     

The Tangjiahe,Wanglang, and Fengtongzhai giant panda reserves and biological conservation in the people's Republic of China

The People's Republic of China has designated a system of reserves in the mountains that rim the Sichuan Basin as areas to be managed specifically for the conservation of the giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca. We were invited to visit three of these reserves in April and May 1981 as guests of the China Association for Science and Technology and the Ministry of Forestry. Two reserves, Wanglang (27,000 ha) and Tangjiahe (40,000 ha) are located in the headwaters of the northern tributtaries of the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) in the Min Shan, 400 km north of Chengdu. The Fengtongzhai (40,000 ha), type locality of Ailuropoda, is in the Qionglai Shah, 250 km west of Chengdu. We describe the physiography, faunistic and floristic position, and conservation management of these areas. Major issues in the conservation of Ailuropoda are discussed.     

A GIS-based survey for the conservation of bryophytes at the landscape scale

Geographical information system (GIS) data on landscape features and land use were collected to predict bryophyte diversity and conservation value in order to determine the factors that favour bryophytes at a large geographical scale and propose the relevant conservation measures. Total species diversity and diversity in species of high conservation value were highly correlated, and the landscape features promoting them were the proportion of military lands, steep slopes, and broadleaf woodland. Military lands seemed to be especially important for the conservation of endangered species highly specialized to open habitats maintained by the appropriate level of disturbance. Woodland cover was also as a key factor for bryophyte diversity but landscape heterogeneity, such as steep slopes with a range of contrasting ecological conditions, was required to reach the highest species numbers. The GIS-based approach presented here may help focusing the attention on sites exhibiting the appropriate landscape features in terms of conservation, which is especially relevant in the context of the European network `Natura 2000' for designating, conserving, and managing the sites of high biological value.     

Aspects of the ecology and conservation of Sri Lanka's endemic freshwater shrimp Caridina singhalensis

The range of distribution of the freshwater shrimp Caridina singhalensis (Ortmann, 1894) (Crustacea: Decapoda: Atyidae), which is endemic to Sri Lanka, has been determined. Although this shrimp was earlier recorded from a number of streams in the highest part of Sri Lanka, where the annual mean temperature is less than 15°C, it is now present in only one stream, in a stretch of about 10 km, on the Horton Plains, situated in the highest peneplain about 2100 m above mean sea level. The population of this shrimp increases from April to September and decreases from October to March, and these fluctuations appear to be related to rainfall and temperature. Some measures to protect this species are suggested.     

Man's exploitation of the gorilla

For hundreds of years the gorilla has been exploited and utilised by man in one form or another, its uses as a natural commodity ranging from raw protein to circus performer. Indigenous man in Africa has long hunted this near-relative, sometimes in reprisal for the destruction of his crops but more often simply for food, while so-called civilised man has hunted and slaughtered it in the name of sport and science. More recently, animal dealers have made fortunes by supplying living infant gorillas to zoos, laboratories and wealthy private owners, but the final trauma may well be one that the gorilla will not survive—the total destruction of its natural habitat in the never-ending quest for raw materials to supply the insatiable industrial nations—and only international intervention will save it.     

Soil biological properties of a montane forest sere: Corroboration of Odum's postulates

Changes in organic C content, N component pools, Shannon-Weaver diversity index (H′) of microbial populations, nitrification potential, and ATP and dehydrogenase activities were examined in soils along a montane meadow-aspen-fir-spruce sere.Along the sere organic C increased from 2.15 to 26.8%, total N from 0.13 to 0.98%, C: N ratios from 17 to 27, total NH₄⁺ from 103 to 850 μg g^?1, total NH₄⁺:NO₃^? ratios from 69 to 326, and microbial diversity index, H′, from 0.87 to 1.28. Coefficients of determination, r², for H′ vs organic C and total N in A-horizons, were 0.99 and 0.98, respectively, and H′ vs combined O- and A-horizons 0.68 and 0.70, respectively, indicating the presence of different microbial communities in the mineral and forest floor soils. Radiocarbon dating of humic acids and humin showed the longest mean residence times (920 and 1050 yr BP) in the meadow soils, suggesting a more efficient organic matter turnover and selective accumulation of recalcitrant organic components than in soils of more mature stages. The ATP content and dehydrogenase activity values were not statistically different in the forest sequence soils. Rates of nitrification potentials measured in vitro increased along the sere in the surface soils.Information obtained from seral soil variables supported hypothesized successional trends relating to organic matter content, species diversity, nutrient cycling, nutrient exchange rate and nutrient conservation. Nitrification potentials of soils, however, contradicted the postulate that nutrient conservation increases as an ecosystem matures.     

A review of conservation threats on Gough Island: a case study for terrestrial conservation in the Southern Oceans

Gough Island is a remote Southern Ocean Island that, despite having no permanent human population, is under substantial conservation threat as a result of human activity. A considerable proportion of the flora and fauna has been accidentally introduced, and new data are presented showing that ca. 70% of the free-living pterygote insect species are introductions. We describe how endangered seabirds that breed on the island may suffer from human fisheries activities and present new evidence showing that local temperatures have risen significantly since 1963, threatening to alter the architecture and composition of species communities. These observations are an indication that the terrestrial ecosystems of other remote islands in the Southern Oceans may be under greater conservation threat than previously thought. In light of the threats described, we discuss conservation management priorities for Gough Island. To facilitate conservation of the indigenous biota, and that of similar islands elsewhere, we suggest that a combination of proactive measures designed to maintain the integrity of island communities, and monitoring programs designed rapidly to identify new conservation threats, should be implemented conscientiously.     

Partnering with local communities to identify conservation priorities for endangered Grevy’s zebra

Setting wildlife conservation priorities and determining how to meet them is challenging, particularly when policy decisions made at large scales need to be informed by a diversity of local conditions. The persistence of species that range widely demands that they coexist with people both within and outside formally protected areas. It is often politically and financially infeasible for one central body, such as a government wildlife agency, to monitor an entire population. Therefore, conservation planners are increasingly turning to local knowledge to inform conservation decisions. Here, we show the scientific and conservation benefits of recruiting and training local community members to collect data on an endangered species, the Grevy’s zebra (Equus grevyi). We recruited 18 scouts from six community-held ranches in Samburu District, Kenya. The scouts record the location, group structure and habitat of all Grevy’s zebra herds seen in walking surveys. Kernel analyses of scout herd observations indicate areas heavily used by Grevy’s zebra, and the subset of these areas favored by females with young foals. The important areas identified by the scouts closely match those inferred from analyses of GPS radiocollar data. Further, scout data reveals extensive spatial and temporal overlap between livestock and Grevy’s zebra. This overlap suggests the potential for competition between Grevy’s zebra and domestic animals. We argue that scout programs such as ours can generate valuable insights for conservation planning. In addition, such programs have the potential to improve local attitudes toward wildlife conservation.     

Man's impact on the tropical rainforest of Peninsular Malaysia: A review

The quickening pace of modernisation in Malaysia is leading to a corresponding acceleration in man's impact on the natural environment of the region. It is shown that the tropical rainforest of Peninsular Malaysia is under heavy attack from a number of economic activities, the most important of these being tin-mining, the exploitation of the jungle for tropical hardwoods, and the removal of extensive areas of natural forest for agricultural expansion. Some of the ecological effects of these activities are briefly discussed and, by way of contrast, compared with man/environment relations in less technically and economically advanced societies. It is suggested that there is an urgent need to preserve, conserve and manage portions of Peninsular Malaysia's rainforest for the economic, aesthetic, recreational and ecological requirements of future generations.     

A commentary on Spain's 1975 Protection of Natural Spaces Act

The four categories of protected areas described in Spain's 1975 Protection of Natural Spaces Act are defined and the programme of action derived from the Law is outlined, specifying the characteristics which may lead to inclusion under the protection plans. Finally, the real situation two years after the Act is analysed and some conclusions are drawn. The situation for conservation is rather discouraging but the need for planning to give greater consideration to conservation values is becoming more and more generally accepted.     

A hierarchical framework for classifying seabed biodiversity with application to planning and managing Australia’s marine biological resources

A conceptual hierarchical framework for classifying marine biodiversity on the sea floor, used successfully for continental-scale bioregionalisation and adopted to guide marine resource planning and management in Australia, has wider application at a global scale. It differs from existing schemes for classifying marine biota by explicitly recognizing the overarching influence of large-scale biodiversity patterns at realm (ocean basin and tectonic), provincial (palaeohistorical) and bathomic (depth-related) levels. The classification consists of 10 nested levels within realms, of which the first seven are primarily spatially nested and ecosystem based, and the lowest levels represent units of taxonomic inheritance: 1 - provinces, 2 - bathomes, 3 - geomorphological units, 4 - primary biotopes, 5 - secondary biotopes, 6 - biological facies, 7 - micro-communities, 8 - species, 9 - populations, and 10 - genes. According to this scheme, marine biodiversity is characterised in a systematic way that captures the scale-dependence and hierarchical organization of the biota. Levels are defined with respect to their functional roles and spatial scales, in a manner that directly supports the incorporation of biodiversity information in regional-scale planning by highlighting centres of endemism, biodiversity richness and priority information needs. Whereas species are the fundamental units of biodiversity, biological facies are the smallest practical unit for conservation management at regional scales. In applying the framework we make extensive use of biological and physical surrogates because marine data sets, particularly those of the deep sea, are usually sparse and discontinuous. At each level of the hierarchy, attributes and surrogates are defined to reflect the scale and range of biogeographic and ecological processes that determine the spatial and temporal distribution of marine biodiversity. The Australian experience in applying this framework suggests that it provides a workable systematic basis for defining, managing and conserving biodiversity in the sea.     

Effects of livestock farming and recommendations for management and conservation of páramo grasslands (Colombia)

Although páramos cover extensive areas in the northern Andean countries, this tropical alpine ecosystem, which evolved without large mammals, is almost unique in the world. The ecological processes of the páramos ecosystem on volcanic soils are to a large extent controlled by low temperatures and phosphorous limitation.Páramos are considered an important ecosystem because of the high degree of endemism and because of their regulative function in the hydrology of the northern Andes. Their economic value reflects their function as a drinking water reserve and their role in agriculture. Grazing and burning have a large impact on the structure of the vegetation and soil, but nutrient concentrations remain almost unchanged owing to the large nutrient immobilization capacity. The high aboveground biomass and complete coverage of the soil is of the utmost importance for the ecosystem. The management and conservation of the ecosystem is difficult if the various functions of the páramos are to be respected. If plant diversity and water storage are to be protected, but if the same production of beef and milk is to be achieved, grazing should be concentrated in a few areas only. In these areas, which must be flat and have good ground coverage, production can be sustained by an input of organic and inorganic fertilizers (phosphorus). Many other areas can remain ungrazed and left for recovery of the natural, tall vegetation with its high endemism. In the future, tourism might play an important role in the conservation of some páramos areas.     

A survey of the Aldabra giant tortoise population introduced on Curieuse Island,Seychelles

The Zoological Society of London carried out a field study in the Republic of the Seychelles to obtain biomedical data from the Aldabra giant tortoise population on Curieuse island and assess the progress of the colony within the context of the Curieuse experiment. The biomedical data will be published in full detail elsewhere, but brief details of the sampling methods are included as an integral part of the handling procedure to which the tortoises were subjected. From evidence gathered in the field it appears that the tortoises have adapted well to the environment, are causing little damage and represent a major tourist attraction.The impact of the tourist industry on the Curieuse experiment was assessed and found to be a source of concern in relation to the successful management of the island.A total of 144 post hatchlings, 1 juvenile and 17 hatchlings were found, distributed in 6 out of 9 designated areas on Curieuse. These represent less than 50% of the total of tortoises re-introduced as part of the Curieuse experiment.There is strong evidence of poaching and theft, probably by local inhabitants.     

A nine-year study of successful breeding in a Bonelli’s eagle population in southeast Spain: a basis for conservation

We analyse the factors influencing breeding success in a healthy population of Bonelli’s eagle (Hieraaetus fasciatus) from south-east Spain, a raptor that has suffered a serious decline in Europe. Between 18 and 33 pairs were annually monitored during the period 1994-2002. Several factors that may affect four breeding parameters were studied, namely human presence, vegetation, relief, climatic factors, intra- and inter-specific relationships, diet, prey abundance, nest building, adult mortality and age of reproduction. A consistently high breeding success was registered during the study period (productivity=1.43, SD=0.11), which was probably the result of high adult survival, adequate prey availability and mild weather conditions. However, a certain vulnerability to the presence of golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and to human disturbance was observed. One interesting result was the reduced survival of young chicks on north-facing cliffs owing to colder conditions, which may partially explain the decline of the Bonelli’s eagle populations along its European distribution limits. We discuss the role of this healthy subpopulation in an Iberian metapopulation context, and propose that the potential interference of golden eagles should be taken into account when designing management strategies for Bonelli’s eagles. Finally, we pinpoint some conservation priorities and the importance of reducing the main causes of adult mortality (i.e. shooting and electrocution) to assure successful reproduction and survival of this species.