A Review of Serological Investigations of Brucellosis Among Farm Animals and Humans in Northern Provinces of Iraq (1974–2004)

Brucellosis is an endemic anthropozoonotic disease in most Middle East countries including Iraq. It causes considerable loss of economy and energy, particularly in the rural areas. Since 1966 when the prevalence of brucella agglutinin from slaughtered sheep and goat was reported in Baghdad, several trials have been conducted including serological studies of brucellosis in the northern provinces of Iraq (Nainava, Duhok, Erbil, Kirkuk and Sulaimani). Humans, sheep, goats, cattle and buffalo have been involved. The studies also included isolation and identification of Brucella species, including B. abortus, B. melitensis and B. ovis. Local veterinary authorities, international organizations, universities and some NGOs have been involved. Moreover, limited efforts have been reported concerning the control and eradication of the disease among goats and sheep in some restricted areas. A limited vaccination program for newborn lambs and kids also has been conducted by the FAO, which was involved in the veterinary emergency plan for brucellosis in 2000. Northern provinces share an extensive border with Iran, Turkey and Syria, in addition to the direct and intimate contacts with other provinces of Iraq, which share borders with Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Hence any strategic planning for the control or eradication of this devastating anthropozoonotic disease in the country should be implemented regionally and not locally.     

羊布鲁氏菌病及其国内外防控净化措施

布鲁氏菌病(简称"布病")是由布鲁氏菌引起的一种人兽共患传染病.在引起布病的所有布鲁氏菌中,对人和家畜威胁最大的是羊种布鲁氏菌.近年来我国针对布病防控颁布了《国家布鲁氏菌病防治计划(2016-2020年)》等相关文件,但布病尤其是羊布病的发生率仍然处于上升趋势.论文主要介绍国内常用的羊布病的防控方法和策略,并结合国外成...     

An overview of the epidemiology and epizootology of brucellosis in selected countries of Central and Southeast Europe

The objective of this paper is to give an overview of the epidemiologic and epizootic status of brucellosis in selected countries of Central and Southeast Europe (Balkan region). Based on dimension of the disease problem, there is a need to establish collaboration in the eradication and prevention of brucellosis between all countries in the region. Although there were no readily accessible data concerning epidemiology and epizootology of brucellosis in these countries, the limited official and published data were analyzed.

The incidence of brucellosis caused by Brucella melitensis in sheep, goats and humans is a very significant problem in Macedonia and Greece. In Greece, cattle are also affected either by B. melitensis or B. abortus. The disease is an endemic problem in some regions of Yugoslavia and includes B. suis biovar 2 in pigs and in Croatia, B. melitensis in sheep, goats and human is found occasionally. No problem appears to exist with brucellosis in Bulgaria.

Financial well-supported brucellosis control programs of the European Union that will include all countries, regardless of the magnitude of brucellosis incidence, are needed for eradication and control of brucellosis.     

Veterinary medical education in Iraq

Iraq is an agricultural country with a large population of animals: sheep, goats, cattle, water buffaloes, horses, donkeys, mules, and camels. In the 1980s, the successful poultry industry managed to produce enough table eggs and meat to satisfy the needs of the entire population; at one time, the thriving fish industry produced different types of fish for Iraqis' yearly fish consumption. There are four veterinary colleges in Iraq, which have been destroyed along with the veterinary services infrastructure. Understandably, improvements to the quality of veterinary education and services in Iraq will be reflected in a healthy and productive animal industry, better food quality and quantity, fewer zoonotic diseases, and more income-generating activities in rural areas. Thus, if undergraduate, graduate, and continuing education programs are improved, the veterinary medical profession will attract more competent students. This will satisfy the country's increased demand for competent veterinarians in both public and private sectors. Although Iraq has an estimated 5,000-7,000 veterinarians, there is a need for quality veterinary services and for more veterinarians. In addition, there is a need for the improvement of veterinary diagnostic facilities, as zoonotic diseases are always highly probable in this region. This article provides insight into the status of veterinary medical education and veterinary services in Iraq before and after the 1991 Gulf War and gives suggestions for improvement and implementation of new programs. Suggestions are also offered for improving veterinary diagnostic facilities and the quality of veterinary services. Improving diagnostic facilities and the quality of veterinary services will enhance animal health and production in Iraq and will also decrease the likelihood of disease transmission to and from Iraq. Threats of disease transmission and introduction into the country have been observed and reported by several international organizations.     

Incidence and control of brucellosis in the Near East region

In countries of the Near East region, brucellosis was reported in almost all domestic animals, particularly cattle, sheep and goats. Brucellosis in camels has been reported in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, Iraq, Iran, Sudan, Egypt, Libya and Somalia. It has been reported even in racing camels in the United Arab Emirates. In Egypt, brucellosis has been reported also in buffaloes, equines and swine. Brucella melitensis biovar 3 is the most commonly isolated species from animals in Egypt, Jordan, Israel, Tunisia and Turkey. B. melitensis biovar 2 was reported in Turkey and Saudi Arabia, and B. melitensis biovar 1 in Libya, Oman and Israel. B. abortus biovar 1 was reported in Egypt, biovar 2 in Iran, biovar 3 in Iran and Turkey, and biovar 6 in Sudan. The countries with the highest incidence of human brucellosis are Saudi Arabia, Iran, Palestinian Authority, Syria, Jordan and Oman. Bahrain is reported to have zero incidence. Most human cases are caused by B. melitensis, particularly biovar 3. However, B. abortus has been responsible for an increasing number of cases in recent years, e.g. in Yemen, where B. abortus was identified in 45 cases and B. melitensis in 7 cases out of 330 cultures performed in 1995. Concerning control of brucellosis in animals, there is a controversy on the choice of policy. In some countries, the test and slaughter policy together with the vaccination of young females is adopted, in others, particularly with regard to sheep and goats; mass vaccination has been recently started. The most commonly used vaccines are B. abortus S19 and B. melitensis Rev.1 vaccines. B. abortus RB51 vaccine is used in some countries on small scale. Vaccination is limited to cattle and small ruminants.     

An overview of the eradication of Brucella melitensis from KwaZulu-Natal

Brucella melitensis is a Gram-negative bacterium whose primary hosts are goats and sheep. Like the other BrucelIa spp., with the exception of Brucella ovis, it is not particularly host specific as it is pathogenic for a variety of other mammal species including humans. In humans the disease caused by it is rated as one of the most important zoonoses. Three outbreaks have been recorded in goats and sheep in South Africa; the first outbreak occurred in sheep in 1965 in the Mpumalanga and Northern Provinces (then both part of the Transvaal Province), the second occurred in sheep in 1989 near Pretoria, Gauteng Province, and the third and current outbreak was diagnosed in a flock of goats in northern KwaZulu-Natal in September 1994. Following the initial diagnosis of B. melitensis in north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal, a serological survey was conducted in order to identify foci of infection in the goat and sheep populations. Six positive foci were identified. In March 1996 a test-and-slaughter eradication campaign was initiated in these areas. Initial test results revealed a prevalence of between 1.23% and 4.02 %. All positive animals were identified and slaughtered. Eradication programmes were repeated between March 1996 and June 2000, in the populations at risk, and the disease prevalence was reduced in all the affected populations.     

Epidemiology,zoonotic aspects,vaccination and control/eradication of brucellosis in India

In India, brucellosis was first recognised in 1942 and is now endemic throughout the country. The disease is reported in cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs and humans. B. abortus biotype-1 in cattle and buffaloes and B. melitensis biotype-1 in sheep, goats and man are the predominant infective biotypes. The long-term serological studies have indicated that 5% of cattle and 3% of buffaloes are infected with brucellosis. Economic losses due to brucellosis in livestock are considerable in an agrarian country like India. There is no organised and effective brucellosis control programme in the country. With the indigenous development of serum and milk based ELISA kits, the population survey of the disease has been undertaken on a large scale in several states and plans for the control of the disease through calf-hood vaccination are being worked out. An innovative approach—Bovine Brucellosis Progressive Control Programme (BBPCP) is targeted to overcome the basic problems of ban on cow slaughter, distress sale of animals following the positive serological diagnosis of brucellosis and absence of a disease control strategy. The work plan for the implementation of BBPCP is presented.     

Occurrence of scrapie in Switzerland: an anonymous cross-sectional study]

Scrapie is a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy of sheep and goats, which leads to neurological signs and ends with the death of the infected animal. In Switzerland only a few cases were reported since 1982. In 1999, a questionnaire survey was conducted to increase information about neurological diseases in sheep and goat breeding farms. The aim was to estimate the frequency of neurological disorders including Scrapie and to increase the disease awareness of sheep and goat breeders. The main goal of the study was to increase the reporting of suspect cases of Scrapie and its differential diagnoses. Out of a database of all registered farms with at least five breeding sheep or breeding goats a random sample of 4711 was drawn to which anonymous questionnaires were sent. The return rate was 36%. In a parallel study, 150 voluntarily participants were interviewed using the same questionnaire. The results of both parts of the survey coincided. For the years 1997 and 1998, on average 1.0% of the breeding sheep and breeding goats showed neurological signs. 7.7% of the breeders indicated to have observed animals with neurological symptoms in their flock. At the population level, a total of 1954-2336 animals with neurological signs are observed in 691-929 flocks. The minority is reported to the veterinary authorities.     

Risk factors for the infection of Swiss goat herds with small ruminant lentivirus: a case-control study

In the mid-1980s, Switzerland started a programme to eradicate caprine arthritis-encephalitis - an infectious disease of goats caused by the small ruminant lentivirus (srlv). Since 1996, progress towards eradication has slowed down, owing to infections occurring on farms from which the infection had previously been eliminated. To investigate specific risk factors for these new infections and to improve the eradication programme, a case-control study was conducted. Cases consisted of farms that had been officially free of srlv for at least three consecutive years but on which at least one srlv-seropositive animal had been detected during the annual serological surveys of 2001 and 2002. On all the case and control farms where sheep were housed together with goats, a subset of sheep was screened for antibodies to srlv. Potential risk factors were analysed in a logistic regression model; the results indicated that close contact with srlv-seropositive sheep was highly correlated with seroconversion in srlv-seronegative goat herds (odds ratio=26.9), supporting the hypothesis that srlv can be transmitted between sheep and goats, and suggesting that the measures taken so far will not lead to the complete eradication of srlv from Switzerland within the next few years.     

Brucellosis in the European Union and Norway at the turn of the twenty-first century

Control and eradication programs of brucellosis in cattle, sheep, goats and pigs have been more or less successfully implemented within the Member States (MS) of the European Union (EU) and Norway after Word War II. As a result, the epidemiological situation of animal brucellosis is extremely diverse among different MS or regions within a MS and among the different animal species. Some MS, mainly North European countries, and Norway are declared “officially bovine brucellosis free” and/or “officially ovine and caprine (Brucella melitensis) free”. The situation is less favorable in Southern European countries, particularly as far as sheep and goat brucellosis are concerned. This situation has important zoonotic consequences as reflected in the number of human brucellosis cases due to B. melitensis that are still encountered in those countries. Brucellosis in swine has re-emerged as a result of spillover from the wild boar brucellosis (Brucella suis biovar 2) reservoir, particularly in outdoor reared pigs. Besides the actual challenge to eradicate brucellosis, further issues have to be addressed: (1) the management of false positive serological results that occur in the course of brucellosis testing, particularly in cattle; (2) the impact of wildlife brucellosis, particularly wild boar brucellosis in domestic animals; and (3) the importance of B. melitensis infection in cattle that are in contact with infected sheep.     

The prevalence of brucellosis among sheep and goats in northern Iraq

Out of a total of 2,368 sheep and 3,156 goats tested against brucellosis by the Brewer's card test in the 5 Mohafadhas of the northern region of Iraq, 0.93% and 4.4% respectively were recorded as positive reactors. The highest incidence (1.36%) among sheep was found in the Kirkuk region while the lowest (0.78%) was in the Mosul (Nineveh) region. Among goats the highest incidence (11.55%) was revealed in the Dukho region while the lowest (1.47%) was in the Sulaimaniya region. The need for more detailed work on the incidence and on the isolation of the local strains, as well as the need for a control programme, is also discussed.     

Importance of brucellosis control programs of livestock on the improvement of one health

Brucellosis not only represents an important health restraint on livestock but also causes high economic losses in many developing countries worldwide. Despite considerable efforts made for the control of brucellosis, the disease is still spreading in many regions (such as the Middle East) where it represents one of the most important health hazards impacting both animals and humans. The present review aims to investigate the efficacy of veterinary control programs regarding brucellosis, with a special focus on current prevention, control, and eradication approaches. The reasons for unsuccessful control programs such as the absence of highly effective vaccines and non-certified bulls are also debated, to understand why the prevalence of brucellosis in livestock is not decreasing in many areas despite considerable efforts taken to date. The importance of governmental and regional investment in brucellosis control remains one of the main limiting factors owing to the limited budget allocated to tackle this disease. In this context, one health concept has generated novel comprehensive approaches with multiple economic implications across the livestock industry and public health. However, the implementation of such global preventive strategies appears to be a key issue for many endemic and low-income countries. According to the collected data, epidemiological contexts including management and trade systems along with well-defined agro-ecological zones should be evaluated in brucellosis endemic countries to improve milk production and to enhance the sustainability of the livestock sector at both national and regional levels.     

动/物/的/鹦/鹉/热/衣/原/体/调/查

本文报道从１９８０年～１９８９年１０年中,在新疆阿勒泰、阿克苏、巴州等１５个地州市、８６个县、４２６个乡（镇）、１５个种畜场的１９种动物和１２７８９９头（只）动物鹦鹉热衣原体病调查,并通过衣原体、弓形体和布鲁氏菌病对比调查说明,新疆布病控制后,衣原体是引起山、绵羊流产的主要原因之一。并从阿克苏、塔城等四个地州的山、绵羊流产胎儿中成功在分离出１９株鹦鹉热衣原体,鉴定方法采用电镜、药敏试验、鸡胚毒力试     

From the discovery of the Malta fever's agent to the discovery of a marine mammal reservoir, brucellosis has continuously been a re-emerging zoonosis

Brucellosis is not a sustainable disease in humans. The source of human infection always resides in domestic or wild animal reservoirs. The routes of infection are multiple: food-borne, occupational or recreational, linked to travel and even to bioterrorism. New Brucella strains or species may emerge and existing Brucella species adapt to changing social, cultural, travel and agricultural environment. Brucella melitensis is the most important zoonotic agent, followed by Brucella abortus and Brucella suis. This correlates with the fact that worldwide, the control of bovine brucellosis (due to B. abortus) has been achieved to a greater extent than the control of sheep and goat brucellosis (due to B. melitensis), these latter species being the most important domestic animals in many developing countries. The long duration and high cost of treatment of human brucellosis reduces the efficacy of the therapy. There is no human vaccine for brucellosis and the occurrence of brucellosis is directly linked to the status of animal brucellosis in a region. In this context, the Word Health Organization has defined the development of a human vaccine, besides the implementation of control and eradication programs in animals, as a high priority. The pathogenicity for humans of B. suis biovars 1, 3 and 4 is well established, whereas B. suis biovar 2 seems to be less pathogenic. Indeed, although hunters and pig farmers have repeatably experienced infectious contact with B. suis biovar 2 (found in wild boar and outdoor-rearing pigs in Europe), isolation of B. suis biovar 2 from human samples have only been seldom reported. Marine mammal brucellosis, due to two new proposed Brucella species i.e. B. cetaceae and B. pinnipediae, represents a new zoonotic threat but the pathogenicity for humans of the different Brucella species found in cetaceans and pinnipeds still has to be clearly established.     

Epidemiological situation of transboundary animal diseases in North African countries—proposition of a regional control strategy

The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) defined transboundary animal diseases (TADs) as those that are of significant economic, trade, and food security importance for a considerable number of countries. TADs can easily spread to other countries, reach epidemic proportions, and where control, management, or exclusion is required cooperation between several countries. The North African countries are vulnerable to several TADs by virtue of its geographical location, its borders with the Sahel region, and peculiar control constraints on the budgets of the national veterinary services of each country and on the livelihoods of livestock owners across the region. In a narrative approach, we comprehensively described the epidemiology of TADs in North African countries, eradication constraints and control measures adopted to conclude with a proposition of a regional control strategy. Our review uncovered foot-and-mouth disease, peste des petites ruminants, bluetongue, sheep/goats pox, brucellosis, West Nile and Rift Valley fever, as the major TADs in this region, while the major constraints identified were illegal animal movement, communal clashes, unreported outbreaks, poor vaccination coverage, and other factors peculiar to each etiology. Therefore, the establishment of early warning systems and proper implementation of control measures at regional level are highly recommended to the relevant stakeholders involved in TADs control in the region.     

Brucellosis at the animal/ecosystem/human interface at the beginning of the 21st century

Following the recent discovery of new Brucella strains from different animal species and from the environment, ten Brucella species are nowadays included in the genus Brucella. Although the intracellular trafficking of Brucella is well described, the strategies developed by Brucella to survive and multiply in phagocytic and non-phagocytic cells, particularly to access nutriments during its intracellular journey, are still largely unknown. Metabolism and virulence of Brucella are now considered to be two sides of the same coin. Mechanisms presiding to the colonization of the pregnant uterus in different animal species are not known. Vaccination is the cornerstone of control programs in livestock and although the S19, RB51 (both in cattle) and Rev 1 (in sheep and goats) vaccines have been successfully used worldwide, they have drawbacks and thus the ideal brucellosis vaccine is still very much awaited. There is no vaccine available for pigs and wildlife. Animal brucellosis control strategies differ in the developed and the developing world. Most emphasis is put on eradication and on risk analysis to avoid the re-introduction of Brucella in the developed world. Information related to the prevalence of brucellosis is still scarce in the developing world and control programs are rarely implemented. Since there is no vaccine available for humans, prevention of human brucellosis relies on its control in the animal reservoir. Brucella is also considered to be an agent to be used in bio- and agroterrorism attacks. At the animal/ecosystem/human interface it is critical to reduce opportunities for Brucella to jump host species as already seen in livestock, wildlife and humans. This task is a challenge for the future in terms of veterinary public health, as for wildlife and ecosystem managers and will need a "One Health" approach to be successful.     

A serological survey of ruminant livestock in Kazakhstan during post-Soviet transitions in farming and disease control

The results of a serological survey of livestock in Kazakhstan, carried out in 1997--1998, are reported. Serum samples from 958 animals (cattle, sheep and goats) were tested for antibodies to foot and mouth disease (FMD), bluetongue (BT), epizootic haemorrhagic disease (EHD), rinderpest (RP) and peste des petits ruminants (PPR) viruses, and to Brucella spp. We also investigated the vaccination status of livestock and related this to changes in veterinary provision since independence in 1991. For the 2 diseases under official surveillance (FMD and brucellosis) our results were similar to official data, although we found significantly higher brucellosis levels in 2 districts and widespread ignorance about FMD vaccination status. The seroprevalence for BT virus was 23%, and seropositive animals were widespread suggesting endemicity, despite the disease not having being previously reported. We found a few seropositives for EHDV and PPRV, which may suggest that these diseases are also present in Kazakhstan. An hierarchical model showed that seroprevalence to FMD and BT viruses were clustered at the farm/village level, rather than at a larger spatial scale. This was unexpected for FMD, which is subject to vaccination policies which vary at the raion (county) level.     

Brucellae through the food chain: the role of sheep, goats and springbok (Antidorcus marsupialis) as sources of human infections in Namibia

A confirmed case of human brucellosis motivated an investigation into the potential source of infection in Namibia. Since domestic animals are principal sources of Brucella infection in humans, 1692 serum samples were screened from sheep, goats and cattle from 4 presumably at-risk farms and 900 springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) serum samples from 29 mixed farming units for Brucella antibodies by the Rose-Bengal test (RBT) and positive cases confirmed by complement fixation test (CFT). To assess the prevalence of human brucellosis, 137 abattoir employees were tested for Brucella antibodies using the standard tube agglutination test (STAT) and by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Cattle and sheep from all 4 farms were negative by RBT and CFT but 2 of the 4 farms (Ba and C) had 26/42 and 12/285 seropositive goats, respectively. Post mortem examination of seropositive goats revealed no gross pathological lesions typical of brucellosis except enlarged mesenteric and iliac lymph nodes seen in a single buck. Culture for brucellae from organs of seropositive animals was negative. None of the wildlife sera tested positive by either RBT or CFT. Interviews revealed that besides the case that prompted the investigation, a family and another person from other farms with confirmed brucellosis shared a common history of consumption of unpasteurised goat milk, home-made goat cheese and coffee with raw milk and prior contact with goats, suggesting goats as the likely source of infection. All 137 abattoir employees tested negative by STAT, but 3 were positive by ELISA. The 3 abattoir workers were clinically normal and lacked historical connections with clinical cases. Although goats are often associated with B. melitensis, these studies could not explicitly implicate this species owing to cross-reactivity with B. abortus, which can also infect goats. Nevertheless, these data reinforce the need for a better National Control Programme for brucellosis in Namibia.     

Prevalence of Brucellosis in Horse North-East of Iran

Brucella preferentially infects cattle, swine, sheep, and goats. However, some epidemiological surveys have been carried out to investigate nonruminants, such as horses. Horse brucellosis has been found in clinical cases, but there are few epidemiologic patterns. Between May 2008 and April 2009, a total of 120 horses were screened for brucella infections in Mashhad, Iran, by the rose bengal test and the tube agglutination test. Sera from three horses were found positive by rose bengal test and tube agglutination test, and therefore the prevalence rate was 2.5%. In horses, the highest individual seroprevalence was in an animal kept close under the intensive system, with other animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats. The zoonotic aspects of brucellosis from the horse must, therefore, be considered because the disease is important from a public health standpoint. The present study documents the first serological evidence of Brucella spp. infection in horses in Iran.     

Survey of the seroprevalence of brucellosis in ruminants in Kosovo

A cross-sectional survey of the seroprevalence of brucellosis in sheep, goats and cattle in Kosovo was made in January 2001. A total of 12,000 serum samples, from 7941 cattle, 3548 sheep and 511 goats, were screened using the Rose Bengal test. Doubtful and positive results were further tested with competitive and indirect ELISAS. The overall serological prevalences derived from the samples positive to all three tests, were 6.26 per cent (95 per cent confidence intervals [CI] 5.5 to 7.1 per cent) for sheep, 7.24 per cent (5.3 to 9.8 per cent) for goats and 0.58 per cent (0.43 to 0.77 per cent) for cattle. The survey covered 26 of the 29 municipalities and showed that brucellosis was widely but unevenly distributed throughout the province. Seropositive animals were found in 25 per cent (19 to 32 per cent) of 162 villages surveyed. The risk of cattle being infected on holdings where both cattle and sheep were kept was greater, with a risk ratio of 4.6 (2.2 to 9.6), than on holdings where only cattle were kept. Brucella melitensis probably predominates as the cause of brucellosis in ruminants in the province of Kosovo.