Distribution and Fate of Organotin Compounds in Japanese Coastal Waters

In order to elucidate the details of both the distribution and fate of organotin compounds (OTs) in the costal ecosystem, the concentrations of butyltin compounds (BTs) and phenyltin compounds (PTs) were determined in seawater, sediment and blue mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis collected in Maizuru Bay, Japan. The concentrations of tributyltin (TBT) in seawater, sediments and mussels ranged from 3.9 to 27 ng l^?1, from 1.2 to 19 ng g^?1 dry wt and from 0.77 to 11 ng g^?1 wet wt, respectively. Although the levels of TBT in seawater, sediments and mussels from Maizuru Bay were lower than those reported previously at other sites in Japan, the levels can still be toxic to susceptible organisms. Trace amounts of PTs were also found in seawater, sediment and mussel samples, indicating that there is a slight input of triphenyltin (TPT) into the seawater in the bay at present. The highest TBT concentration in seawater among all sites measured in the bay was found near a glass factory, and the lowest concentrations were observed at the center of the bay. The highest concentration of TBT in sediment was detected near a shipyard. In mussels, a high concentration of TBT was detected near a cement plant and timberyard. These results indicate that the major sources of contamination of OTs in the bay are considered to be from those facilities and ships. The proportion of TBT in seawater and mussels showed that, of total BTs, it was the predominant compound at most sites. These results suggested that there is a continuous input of TBT into the seawater and thereafter an accumulation of TBT in mussels due to their low metabolic capacity to degrade TBT. In sediment, the proportion of monobutyltin (MBT) was the highest of BTs at most sites. This could reflect a previous contamination by TBT used before the regulation of its usage in the bay.     

Organochlorine pesticide contents of tributaries into Blanca Bay,Argentina

Thirteen 1-L replicate water samples from streams emptying into Blanca Bay, Argentina, were taken to study the environmental quality of the surface waters. Out of tests for eleven chlorinated pesticides, five were detected in all the sampling places as both dissolved and adsorbed species: alpha-HCH, gamma-HCH (lindane), heptachlor, delta-HCH, and aldrin. The concentrations were in the following ranges: alpha-HCH = 3 to 68 ng L^?1 and 9 to 239 ng g^?1, lindane = 2 to 42 ng L^?1 and 10 to 542 ng g^?1, heptachlor = 5 to 32 ng L^?1 and 9 to 390 ng g^?1, delta-HCH = 1 to 10 ng L^?1 and n.d. to 87 ng g^?1, and aldrin = 1 to 7 ng L^?1 and n.d. to 33 ng g^?1 for filtered water and suspended matter samples, respectively. Heptachlor epoxide, dieldrin, o-p′ DDD, and p-p′ DDT were found to be present in solution at only one sampling site whereas p-p′ DDD and o-p′DDT were not detected. The analyses revealed a non-uniform distribution of these compounds over the studied area. The higher concentrations of organochlorines were detected downstream urban areas.     

Cadmium and Copper Effects on Larval Development and Mortality of the Polychaete Capitella Sp Y from Estero Del Yugo, Mazatlan, Mexico

The effects of cadmium and copper on larval metamorphosis and mortality of cultured Capitella sp Y were investigated. Metatrochophore larvae were exposed to 0.013 (control), 0.030, 0.080, 0.120, and 0.170 mg Cd L^?1 and 0.017 (control), 0.025, 0.060, and 0.075 mg Cu L^?1 for 34 days. Larval mortality significantly (p < 0.01) increased with increasing Cd and Cu concentrations (Kruskal-Wallis test), with similar effects for both metals for day 10 (LC₅₀ = 0.035 mg Cd L^?1 and 0.035 mg Cu L^?1). Metamorphosis was inhibited in larvae exposed to the two metals in the absence of food, the effect of Cu being the most severe. This study suggests that Cd and Cu exposure could be harmful to early developmental stages of Capitella sp Y producing a delay in recruitment into natural populations.     

Contamination of the Coastal Waters of Gijón (North West Spain) by Butyltin Compounds

An innovative method for the determination of butyltin compounds in seawater samples based on the use of isotope dilution analysis has been applied to study the contamination of butyltin compounds in the Bay of Gijón (Spain) where no previous data existed. The sampling in this bay allowed the evaluation of mono-, di-and tributyltin (MBT, DBT and TBT, respectively) contamination in very different environmental compartments (harbour, marina, shipyards and enclosed and open beaches). The results showed clearly a strong influence of the type of location, the water renewal and the proximity to contaminated areas on the levels of butyltin compounds. It was found that in more than 75% of the samples the TBT values were found to be higher than the US-EPA water quality criteria of 7.4 ng L^?1 and that in 95% of the samples the concentration of TBT exceeded 1 ng L^?1 which has been reported to be a toxic level for many marine species.     

Chronic toxicity of an environmental contaminant mixture to young (or larval) striped bass

Larvae of striped bass (Morone saxatilis (Walbaum)) were exposed to a mixture of organic and inorganic contaminants in fresh well water and 2 g L^?1 saline water for 30 days and in 5 g L^?1 saline water for 90 days. Environmental concentrations (ECs) of organic and inorganic chemicals were estimated for the Chesapeake Bay area. Striped bass were exposed to the EC, 0.25 EC, 0.5 EC, 2 EC, 4 EC, and a solvent control to simulate potential conditions in their spawning and nursery habitats of the Chesapeake Bay. The sensitivities of striped bass as determined by survival depended on the characteristics of the exposure water. Larvae exposed in fresh well water were the most susceptible to the contaminant mixture; the 2 and 4 EC treatments caused significant (P:5 0.05) mortality within 30 days. In the 2 g L^?1 salinity water, the 4 EC treatment caused significant mortality after 30 days of exposure. Larvae exposed to the contaminant mixture for 90 days in the 5 g L^?1 saline water incurred significant mortality in the 2 and 4 EC treatments. We concluded that the age of the larvae, concentration of the contaminants, and salinity of the environment must be considered in evaluating the influence of environmental contaminants on the decline of striped bass along the east coast.     

Chronic effects of low ph and elevated aluminum on survival,maturation, spawning and embryo-larval development of the fathead minnow in soft water

Fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) were exposed to a range of pH and A1 concentrations in soft water (8 mg Ca L^?1) to determine effect levels at various life stages. The tested pH levels ranged from 8.0 through 5.2 and inorganic monomeric Al from 15 through 60 μg L^?1. Reproductive processes including spawning, embryogenesis and early larval survival were more sensitive to acid stress than were juvenile growth and survival. Juvenile survival was significantly reduced at pH 5.2 + 60 μg Al L^?1 (P <0.05). Spawning success was reduced at pH 6.0 and 5.5 (P <0.10) and failed completely at pH 5.2, regardless of Al concentration. An apparant beneficial effect of added Al was observed during spawning at pH 7.5 + 35 μg Al L^?1, but this effect was not significantly greater than at pH 7.5 + 15 μg Al L^?1. A significant (P <0.05) decrease in larval survival occurred at pH 6.0 + 15 μg Al L^?1 and lower compared to the survival at pH 7.5 + 15 μg Al L^?1. Aluminum at 30 μg L^?1 provided protection resulting in short term increased embryo-larval survival at pH 5.5. The effect of parental exposure on progeny survival was assessed by an interchange of embryos from the spawning treatment to all tested exposure conditions. When reared at pH 8.0 + 15 μg Al L^?1 through 6.0 + 15 μg Al L^?1 or at pH 5.5 + 30 μg Al L^?1, parental exposure did not significantly influence progeny survival. However, survival was significantly reduced among progeny from brood fish reared at pH 5.5 + 15 μg Al L^?1 as compared to those spawned at pH 6.0 + 15 μg Al L^?1 and above, or at pH 5.5 + 30 μg Al L^?1 (P <0.05). Juvenile or 14 d larval growth effects were not detected under any exposure condition (P >0.05). Ultimately, fathead minnow young-of-the-year recruitment and production potential can be expected to diminish when environmental pH falls to 6.0, and to fail completely at 5.5 and lower.     

Urea in the Tributaries of the Chesapeake and Coastal Bays of Maryland

Concentrations of dissolved urea were monitored in several Chesapeake Bay tributaries from 1998 to 2002. Urea is a commonly used agricultural fertilizer and is also a breakdown product of poultry manure, which is used as an additional source of fertilizer throughout the watershed. Two trends were apparent. First, in several of the tributaries, seasonal peaks in ambient urea concentration coincided with the periods of the year (early spring and mid summer) when agricultural applications are most common. Second, highest annual mean concentrations (up to 2.6 μg atom N L^?1), as well as highest individual measurements (up to 24 μg atom N L^?1), were found for those tributaries with the most intensive agricultural and poultry operations. Peak urea concentrations were significantly higher than those which could be attained from in situ sources and regeneration. These elevated concentrations are of concern because this form of nitrogen has been shown to be a preferred form of nitrogenous nutrient for many phytoplankton, including some dinoflagellates which form harmful algal blooms. These results demonstrate that urea from land based sources can contribute to anthropogenic eutrophication.     

Total concentrations of mercury in Wisconsin (USA) lakes and rivers

We analyzed surface waters from 30 Wisconsin lakes and rivers for total mercury ([Hg]_T) and total suspended particulates (TSP) on a state-wide basis with trace-metal ‘ultraclean’ techniques. Mercury concentrations ranged from 0.3 to 2.9 ng L^?1 in lakes and from 0.7 to 8.9 ng L^?1 in rivers. TSP concentrations ranged from 0.9 to 6.6 mg L^?1 in lakes and from 3.1 to 31.4 mg L^?1 in rivers. Spatial trends were weak; however, [Hg] _T was generally higher in the spring than in the autumn of 1991. Total mercury concentration was weakly dependent on TSP with the coefficient of determination (r ²) ranging 0.06 to 0.49 across seasonal and geophysical differences.     

Toxicity of insecticides and effects on the behavior of the blood clamAnadara granosa

The toxicity of organophosphate insecticides, mainly phosphamidon, monocrotophos and dichlorvos to the blood clamAnadara granosa, occurring in Kakinada Bay of the Godavari estuarine system was measured. The LC₅₀ values of three insecticides for 24,48,72 and 96 hr exposure ranged from 4.26 to 11.53 mg L^?1 for phosphamidon, 3.50 to 9.31 mg L^?1 for monocrotophos and 1.79 to 6.20 mg L^?1 for dichlorvos. Dichlorvos proved highly toxic even at low concentrations compared to either phosphamidon or monocrotophos. The animals showed decreasing activity with increasing insecticide concentrations and duration of exposure. However, there was no marked difference in the toxicity between phosphamidon and monocrotophos.     

Effect of oils and oil-products on crustaceans

The effect of oil and oil products on the 5 species of crustaceans in the Caspian sea was investigated. Two species of shrimp (Palaemon elegans, P. adspersus), crab (Thithropanopeus harrisii tridentatus), amphipoda (Pontogammarus maeoticus), and cirripeda crayfish (Balanus improvisus) are classified among them. Various oil products (oil, phenol, fuel oil, xerosene, gasoline, solar oil) were used in the experiments. The influence of oil on the respiration and mass increase, quality of generation, and larval stages of the crustaceans was studied. Minimal critical concentrations for the crustaceans are 0.001 mg L^?1 of fenol, 0.4 mg L^?1 of oil, 0.1 mg L^?1 of solar oil, 0.01 mg L^?1 of gasoline and fuel oil.     

Acute and sub-chronic toxicity of lead to the early life stages of smallmouth bass (Micropterus Dolomieui)

The early life stages of smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieui) were exposed to Pb in acute (96 hr) and sub-chronic (90 day) bioassays (water hardness = 152 mg L^?1 as CaCO₃). After 96-hr static exposures at nominal Pb concentrations up to 15.9 mg L^?1, eggs and sac fry showed no increased mortality over that in controls. Swim-up fry (96-hr LC₅₀ = 2.8 mg Pb L^?1) were more sensitive to Pb exposure than were fingerlings (96-hr LC₅₀ of 29.0 mg Pb L^?1 ). The relation between dissolved Pb and mortality was non-significant for either swim-up fry or fingerlings. Fingerlings were exposed to Pb concentrations as high as 405 μg L^?1 for 90 day to evaluate effects on substrate selection, locomotor activity, hematology, and weight. Dark or light substrate selection (cover-seeking) and locomotor activity, weight and hemoglobin concentration in the blood were not significantly altered by any treatment. Hematocrit and leucocrit varied significantly but not in relation to Pb levels. Sub-chronic Pb exposure did not appear to represent a threat to smallmouth bass in waters of medium hardness and above-neutral pH (7.1 to 7.9).     

The Use of AERMOD Air Pollution Dispersion Models to Estimate Residential Ambient Concentrations of Elemental Mercury

Source-oriented models are ideally suited to examine the impact of terrain and meteorology and source factors such as stack height when evaluating exposures to air pollutants. A source-oriented, Gaussian plume air pollution dispersion model AERMOD was used to estimate the spatial distribution of elemental mercury (Hg⁰) from a typical coal-fired boiler emitting 0.001 g Hg⁰/s. Hg⁰ was chosen because of its health impact related to potential neurological and reproductive effects which may be especially important for high-risk populations. Results from four simulations using meteorological data from 2004 were compared for flat and hilly terrain from 20- and 55-m stacks at a distance of 1,350 m from the source. Variations within a quadrant were affected primarily by topography. For the 20-m stack, the average annual ambient concentration for individuals living within the northeast (NE) quadrant was significantly lower at 2.5 ng Hg⁰/m³ (P?<?0.001; confidence interval (CI), 2.4?C2.6) in flat terrain versus 3.3 ng Hg⁰/m³ in hilly (P?<?0.001; CI, 1.2?C1.3). NE concentrations of the source showed high spatial variability attributed to topography with 1-h maximums of 4.0 ng Hg⁰/m³ flat versus 7.1 ng Hg⁰/m³ hilly. Not unexpectedly, average annual concentrations were considerably lower for the 55-m stack although topography remained a significant variable with 0.1 ng Hg⁰/m³ in flat terrain (p?<?0.001; CI, 0.11?C0.13) and double that exposure at 0.2 ng Hg⁰/m³ in hilly terrain (p?<?0.001; CI, 0.16?C0.18). Annual average mercury concentrations due to emissions from the 20-m stack were ~20 times higher than ambient concentrations associated with the 55-m stack. A sensitivity analysis was performed for meteorological effects, using meteorological data from years 2001?C2005. Varying the roughness factor had no significant effect on the results. For all simulations, the highest concentrations were located in the NE quadrant. During 2001?C2005, the highest average annual ambient Hg concentration ranged from 6.2 to 7.0 ng Hg⁰/m³ for the 20-m stack and 0.3?C0.5 ng Hg⁰/m³ for the 55-m stack. Thus, this model is robust. These results demonstrate the usefulness of a source-oriented model such as AERMOD for incorporating multiple factors for estimating air pollution exposures for communities near point sources. The importance of considering topography, meteorology, and source characteristics when placing air samplers to measure air quality and when using buffer zones to estimate ambient residential exposures is also illustrated. Residential communities in hilly terrain near industrial point sources may have between two to three times the exposures as those in flat terrain. Exposures will vary depending on the stack height of the point source.     

A Survey of Organotin Compounds in the Northern Adriatic Sea

The extent of pollution with organotin compounds was investigated in water, sediment and bivalve mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) from the Northern Adriatic Sea. Butyl-, phenyl- and octyltin species were quantified after extraction and derivatisation by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry in a total of 99 samples from the period from 2000 to 2006. The accuracies of the analytical procedures were checked by spiking of unpolluted water samples and by the analysis of standard reference materials (harbour sediment PACS-2 and mussel tissue ERM-CE 477). Among organotin species analysed in samples butyltins were the predominant. Tributyltin was found to be present in the highest concentrations, suggesting its recent input into the marine environment. Butyltins were detected at all sites surveyed (sum of butyltins was up to 718 ng Sn L^?1, 3,552 ng Sn g^?1 d.w. and 9,991 ng Sn g^?1 d.w. in water, sediment and mussel samples, respectively), phenytins in much lower concentrations (up to 31 ng Sn L^?1, 326 ng Sn g^?1 d.w. and 442 ng Sn g^?1 d.w. in water, sediment and mussel samples) and to a much smaller extent, while octyltins were not detected at any location. The spatial distribution of tributyltin was closely related to boating, with the highest concentrations found in marinas (up to 586 ng Sn L^?1 for water samples, 1,995 ng Sn g^?1 d.w. for sediment and 6,434 ng Sn g^?1 d.w. for mussel samples). The temporal distribution clearly indicates a decrease of organotin pollution at all sites.     

Atrazine residues in estuarine water and the aerial deposition of atrazine into Rhode River,Maryland

Water samples from the Rhode River, an estuary situated on the western shore of the Chesapeake Bay, were analyzed for atrazine residues twice a week for 2 yr. Precipitation samples; which included dryfall, rainfall, and snowfall were collected with wide-mouth stainless steel collection pans situated about 20 m above ground in an open space. A total of 68 precipitation samples was collected from December 1976 to February 1979. Atrazine residues were detectable in estuarine water and in rainwater year-round. Atrazine residues in estuarine water were generally 6 to 190 ng 1^?1 atrazine residues in rainwater (bulk precipitation) were 3 to 2190 ng 1^?1. Atrazine residues in rainwater samples collected during the winter season (January to April 1977) were unexpectedly high (e.g., 3 to 970 ng 1^?1). The highest atrazine concentration of 2190 ng 1^?1 was detected from a 0.76 cm rainfall event collected on May 19, 1977. Intermittent spraying operations of atrazine within the cornfields were generally done during May of each year. Rain samples collected during May of 1978 also showed higher atrazine residues than the rest of the 1978 growing season, but at levels much less than those detected in 1977 rainwater. Although high atrazine concentrations were detected in winter rainfall, these did not result in similarly higher atrazine concentrations in estuarine receiving waters. Our data showed a decline of atrazine concentrations in estuarine water in October and November which continued until a rainfall following Spring herbicide applications. Atrazine is enriched at the microsurface layer of estuarine water, but direct atmospheric input of atrazine did not seem to contribute significantly to the enrichment mechanism. Atrazine is believed to be transported long distances in polluted air masses. The estuarine microsurface layer could be a source of atmospheric atrazine, but the importance of the source is yet to be determined. Atrazine was quantitatively determined by GC using a nitrogen specific electrolytic detector and was confirmed by GC/Mass.     

Dominant Characteristics Between <Emphasis Type="Italic">Microcystis aeruginosa</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cyclotella</Emphasis> Sp. Accompanying Dilution Process in Eutrophic Lake

Although dilution of lake water has been used for improvement of water quality and algal blooms control, it has not necessarily succeeded to suppress the blooms. We hypothesized that the disappearance of algal blooms by dilution could be explained by flow regime, nutrient concentrations, and their interaction. This study investigated the effects of daily renewal rate (d), nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) concentration, and their interaction on the domination between Microcystis aeruginosa and Cyclotella sp. through a monoxenic culture experiment. The simulation model as functions of the N:P mass ratio and dilution rate (D) (calculated from d) was constructed, and the dominant characteristics of both species were predicted based on the model using parameters obtained in a monoculture experiment and our previous study. Results of monoxenic culture experiment revealed that M. aeruginosa dominated in all conditions (d = 5 or 15%; N = 1.0 or 2.5 or 5.0 mg-N L^?1; P = 0.1 or 0.5 mg-P L^?1) and the predicted cell densities were substantially correspondent to experimental data. Under various N:P ratios and D values, characteristics of domination for each species were predicted, indicating that Cyclotella sp. tended to be dominant under high P concentrations (P ≥ 0.36 mg-P L^?1) when the N:P ratio was less than 7.0, and M. aeruginosa could not form algal blooms at the N:P ratio ≤ 7.0 (N ≤ 0.7 mg-N L^?1). It was also suggested that the dilution rate leading to the Cyclotella sp. domination required 0.20 day^?1 or higher regardless of the N:P ratios.

Open image in new window

Graphical Abstract ? M. aeruginosa and Cyclotella sp. could be a superior competitor in nutrient-limited and nutrient-rich conditions, respectively. ? The simulation model in this study indicated that the predicted cell density and nutrient concentration were substantially correspondent to experimental data. ? The model predicted that Cyclotella sp. tended to be dominant at the P ≥ 0.36 mg-P L^?1 when the N:P ratio was less than 7.0, and M. aeruginosa could not form algal blooms at the N:P ratio ≤ 7.0 (N ≤ 0.7 mg-N L^?1).

     

Measurement of methylmercury and mercury in run-off,lake and rain waters

During one year, samples from eight drainage lakes, seven run-off stations and three deposition sites from various geographical areas in Sweden were collected and analyzed for methyl Hg (MeHg) and total Hg (Hg-tot). The MeHg concentrations ranged from 0.04 to 0.64 ng L^?1, 0.04 to 0.8 ng L^?1, and <0.05 to 0.6 ng L^?1 in run-off, lake water and rain water, respectively. The corresponding Hg-tot concentrations were found in the range 2 to 12 ng L^?1, 1.35 to 15 ng L^?1, and 7 to 90 ng L^?1, respectively. A Hg-tot level of about 60 ng Hg L^?1 was found in throughfall water. The MeHg and Hg-tot concentrations are positively correlated in both run-off and lake water, but not in rain and throughfall water. A strong positive correlation between the MeHg, as well as the Hg-tot concentration, and the water color is observed in both run-off and lake waters, which suggests that the transport of MeHg and other Hg fractions from soil via run-off water to the lake is closely related to the transport of organic substances; and is a consequence of the biogeochemical processes and the water flow pathway. The ratio between the mean values of MeHg and Hg-tot seems to be an important parameter, with an indicated negative coupling to the mean value of pH for run-off water, but a strong positive correlation to Hg-content in fish, the ratio between the area of the catchment and the lake, as well as to the retention time of lake.     

Comparison of avoidance responses of an estuarine fish,Fundulus heteroclitus,and crustacean,Palaemonetes pugio,to bis (tri-n-butyltin) oxide

Avoidance responses of an estuarine fish, mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus), and crustacean, grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio) to the antifoulant his (tri-n-butyltin) oxide (TBTO) were evaluated. Four out of six groups of mummichogs tested at 1.0 μg total organic Sn L^?1 showed avoidance. Total organic Sn concentrations of ≥ 3.7 μg L^?1 were avoided by this fish species in all cases. Higher concentrations of total organic Sn did not result in greater avoidance responses. Grass shrimp did not avoid total organic Sn concentrations between 2.3 and 30.0 μg L^?1. Response data at 2.3 and 30 μg L^?1 were similar. Mummichogs and grass shrimp differed greatly in their abilities to avoid potentially adverse concentrations of total organic Sn. Since mummichogs are major predators of grass shrimp, these behavioral responses may have important implications for tidal marsh ecosystems.     

Total cadmium concentrations in the water and littoral sediments of Central Ontario Lakes

Lakes within 20 km of Sudbury, Ontario, have significantly higher Cd concentrations in surface waters (geometric mean 122 ng L^?1; n = 7) than lakes elsewhere in central Ontario (10.8 ng L^?1; n = 57). Cadmium concentrations in water from lakes beyond the Sudbury halo were negatively correlated (r = 0.797; p < 0.001) with pH. A weak correlation between fluoride and Cd concentrations leads to speculation that some Cd may be mobilized from watersheds with Al. Cadmium concentrations in littoral sediments are not elevated near Sudbury. The geometric mean Cd concentration of littoral sediments in central Ontario lakes is 0.08 mg Cd kg^?1 dry mass (n = 75). Cadmium concentrations in littoral sediments are strongly correlated with sediment loss on ignition (r = 0.860; p < 0.001). After correction for differences in organic content, littoral sediments are less enriched with Cd than profundal sediments, as reported in the literature. The difference between littoral and profundal sediments, and the sensitivity of Cd concentrations in water to pH, may be due to the importance of Cd binding by Fe/Mn hydrous oxides in the profundal zone, while organic matter binds Cd in the littoral zone. The lack of sensitivity of Cd concentrations in littoral sediments to acidification may be due to the incorporation of much of the Cd in those sediments into organic particulates.     

Occurrence and Distribution of Perfluorooctane Sulfonate and Perfluorooctanoic Acid in the Rivers of Tokyo

Comprehensive survey of major rivers in the Tokyo metropolitan area was conducted for clarifying the emission sources of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) in Tokyo. PFOS was found at all sampling sites at concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 58 ng L^?1; in addition to this, it was also indicated that unknown PFOS emission sources are present in the midstream of the Tama River basin. The relationship between PFOS and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) was constant at a ratio of 10:3 (PFOS/PFOA) throughout the Tama River basin. The sum of daily load amounts of PFOS from Tokyo’s major rivers to Tokyo Bay reached 215 g day^?1. This value corresponds to 12.8 μg day^?1 per person using the sum of wastewater treatment district populations. In contrast, an estimation of PFOS contribution of domestic wastewater was also attempted, and the contribution was 1.6 μg day^?1 per person. We took samples up trunk sewers in the Tama River and finally found at the highest PFOS concentration (58,000 ng L^?1) from one of the wastewater of the electronic parts manufacturing facilities.     

Occurrence of Organotin Compounds in the Aquatic Environment of Greece

The presence of organotin (OT) compounds was investigated in coastal areas (10 stations), wastewater treatment systems (six stations), rivers (19 stations) and lakes (12 stations) throughout Greece, in three sampling campaigns organized between October 1998 and September 1999. A screening method for the determination of toluene extractable organotins (TEOTs) by Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (ETAAS) was used during the first two sampling campaigns. TEOTs (sum of tributyltin, TBT, dibutyltin, DBT and triphenyltin, TPhT) were detected in most seawater and wastewater samples at concentrations up to 19.4 and 89.9 ng l^?1, respectively, while they were detected occasionally in surface water. During the third sampling campaign, OT compounds were extracted in selected stations using direct derivatization with NaBEt₄ in acidic medium and analysed by Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS). In seawater, the levels of TBT, DBT and monobutyltin (MBT) were varied between < 2 and 70, 159 and 19 ng l^?1, respectively and tend to decrease with increasing distance from the coastline. TPhT was not detected in any of the samples. Significant concentrations of OT species were detected in influent wastewater, up to 384, 76.2 and 67.8 ng l^?1 for TBT, DBT and MBT, respectively. OTs were mainly associated with the suspended solids and were totally removed during wastewater treatment.