Effect of cassava mosaic disease,soil fertility,plant spacing and their interactions on cassava yields in Zanzibar

Improvement of farmers' decision-making has been recognised as critical for the implementation of IPM, yet practitioners lack sound knowledge on the 'how and why' of farmers' decision-making processes. This study explored the perceptions, pest management practice, decision tools and sources of information of smallholder farmers growing cotton in India and vegetables in Kenya. Farmers trained under an Insecticide Resistance Management and two IPM Farmer Field School projects were compared with untrained farmers from the same localities, using individual interviews and participatory group analysis methods. Trained farmers' decision-making was enhanced, by the use of more decision tools and new sources of information and technologies and they were generally more confident in their pest management strategies than untrained farmers. As a result, trained farmers reduced their pest management costs but did not always obtain higher gross margins. Issues of gender, sustainability, economics and group action are discussed, along with recommendations for research and extension to take a closer look at farmers' decision-making processes in cash and subsistence crops.     

Ustilago kamerunensis on Napier grass in Kenya

Napier or elephant grass, Pennisetum purpureum Schum., is the major source of fodder for stall-fed dairy cattle in Kenya. In the early 1990s, a new disease, caused by Utilago kamerunensis P. & H. Sydow was reported on the grass. Since there was a lack of information on the general pest and disease status of Napier grass in Kenya, a survey was carried out. The survey confirmed that U. kamerunensis was the major pest and disease threat to Napier grass production in the country, having spread to four districts and occurring in 27% of farm plots sampled. The existence of disease hotspots suggests that the main means of spread is through transport of infected planting material, and that the severity of the disease in Kenya compared with other countries results from an increase in the cultivation of Napier grass over the past decade.     

Farmers' knowledge,perceptions, and management practices of the new invasive pest,fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) in Ethiopia and Kenya

This paper reports for the first time on farmers’ knowledge, perceptions and management practices of the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) in Ethiopia and Kenya. A survey of 343 smallholder maize farmers was conducted. Most farmers in Ethiopia and Kenya had knowledge about fall armyworm; they could identify it mainly during its larval stage. Furthermore, most farmers in Ethiopia (93%) and Kenya (97%) encountered damage by fall armyworm in their farms. They estimated an average of 32% crop damage in Ethiopia and 47.3% of crop damage in Kenya, with an estimated yield reduction between 0.8 to 1 tonnes/ha. Nearly half of the farmers relied on chemical insecticides to control this pest. The majority (60%) of the farmers in Kenya perceived that insecticides were not effective in controlling fall armyworm as compared to most farmers (46%) in Ethiopia who perceived that chemical spray is effective for the control of fall armyworm. In Ethiopia, 26% of the farmers combined handpicking larvae with insecticide sprays, whilst 15% of the farmers practiced only handpicking. The present study highlights the need to develop management strategies for fall armyworm based on farmers’ needs and priorities.     

Farmers' perceptions and practices for managing tomato leaf curl virus disease in southern India

A survey of 174 tomato farmers in five districts of Karnataka State, South India, was conducted between March and July 1998 with the objectives of assessing farmers' knowledge and perceptions of tomato leaf curl virus disease (ToLCVD) and examining their current control practices. The findings showed that farmers were familiar with ToLCVD and regarded it as a serious constraint upon production, particularly in the hot season. However, only 2% of farmers were aware that tomato leaf curl virus (ToLCV) was transmitted by a whitefly vector, Bemisia tabaci . A similarly small number of farmers knew that ToLCVD was caused by a virus, whilst 86% of farmers believed that it was caused by high temperatures. Approximately 90% of farmers relied primarily on pesticides for control of ToLCVD. Few ToLCV-resistant varieties were available but one such variety, Avinash II, was grown by 13% of farmers in the hot season when incidence of the disease is highest. Farmers visiting experimental trials at a farmer field day, showed a strong interest in new advanced breeding tomato lines with resistance to ToLCV. Factors affecting the adoption of ToLCV-resistant varieties by tomato farmers are discussed.     

Farmers’ perceptions of sorghum production constraints and Striga control practices in semi-arid areas of Tanzania

The objectives of this study were to investigate constraints affecting sorghum production and farmers' approaches of Striga management in the semi-arid regions of Tanzania. Focus group discussions based on a semi-structured questionnaire and observations following transect walks were used for data collection. Only 35%, 15%, and 10% of the farmers from Igunga, Kishapu, and Meatu districts, respectively, reported growing newly released varieties. The major constraints affecting sorghum production in the study areas included Striga infestation, drought, storage pests, damage by birds, a lack of access to improved varieties, and a lack of access to production inputs, such as fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides and herbicides. Hand weeding, crop rotation, fallowing, intercropping, and organic manure application were the most common practices of farmers for reducing Striga infestations, but most farmers (79.7%) had little knowledge of the best recommended Striga management practices. About 65% of the farmers did not use fertilizers and herbicides for soil fertility improvement and weed management, respectively, creating favourable conditions for Striga infestation. A systematic breeding programme aiming at improving sorghum varieties for Striga resistance, including farmers' preferred traits, should be designed and implemented to increase the adoption of these new varieties by the farmers.     

Influence of pesticide information sources on citrus farmers' knowledge,perception and practices in pest management,Mekong Delta,Vietnam

In 1998-99, about 150 citrus farmers and 120 pesticide sellers were interviewed in Can Tho and Dong Thap province, Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Media, pesticide sellers and extension staff had different influences on farmers' pest perception and management practices depending on the region and intensity of the cropping system. Pesticide sellers were notified by about 95% of the farmers about their major pest problems, and the type of pesticides sold in their shop was primarily based on farmers' demand (87%) and then on company promotion (56%). Those farmers relying on pesticide sellers used more of the banned insecticide methyl parathion. Probably for fear of being accused of illegal practices, none of the pesticide sellers mentioned that they recommended this product or that farmers asked for it. In the intensive Tieu mandarin cropping system, media and extension activities increased farmers' knowledge of difficult-to-observe pests such as the citrus red mite Panonychus citri and thrips, Thrips sp. and Scirtothrips sp. Since extension was weak in sweet orange, those farmers exposed to media only reported the damage symptom of mites, not knowing the causal agent. Media alone seemingly did not suffice to acquaint farmers with these small organisms. Farmers getting advice from the media advertisements applied more different pesticide products and sprayed insecticides more frequently, whereas the extension has stimulated the use of acaricides and increased the number of both insecticide and fungicide sprays. The traditional practice of biological control with the ant Oecophylla smaragdina might be endangered with growing media influence and when extension activities remain confined to chemical pest control. Constraints and potentials of different information sources are discussed in relation to developing IPM programmes for citrus.     

Farmers' knowledge,attitudes and practices of rice crop and pest management at Ifugao Rice Terraces,Philippines

A survey of 150 rice farmers in three municipalities of the Ifugao Rice Terraces, Philippines, carried out in June 1998, aimed to assess the farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and practices of rice crop and pest management. The survey revealed that: 54% of the farmers fall within a narrow age range (31-50 years), the majority having 11-30 years of rice farming experience; they are of average literacy; and they have large households. Non-farm activity such as woodcarving was the most common source of additional income. The majority of farmers planted a single crop of rice per year and followed traditional cultivation practices. Major rice crop production constraints were drought due to the El Nino phenomenon and insufficient irrigation infrastructure. Zinc deficiency was widespread. Major, non-insect pests known to farmers were earthworms, rats, golden apple snails, and house sparrows. These pests damage either the rice plant or the terrace wall. Earthworm damage to the terrace wall is most obvious. Farmers had very little exposure to integrated pest management and new rice technologies.     

A dual indicator set to help farms achieve more sustainable crop protection

BACKGROUND: Farmers are being called to use plant protection products (PPPs) more consciously and adopt more sustainable crop protection strategies. Indicators will help farmers to monitor their progress towards sustainability and will support their learning process. Talking the indicators through in farmers' discussion groups and the resulting peer encouragement will foster knowledge acquirement and can lead to changes in attitudes, norms, perception and behaviour. RESULTS: Using a participatory approach, a conceptual framework for on‐farm sustainable crop protection practices was created. The same participatory approach was used to design a dual indicator set, which pairs a pesticide impact assessment system (PIAS) with a farm inquiry. The PIAS measures the risk for human health and the environment exerted by chemical crop protection. The inquiry reveals the farmers' response to this risk, both in terms of the actions they take and their knowledge, awareness and attitude. CONCLUSIONS: The dual indicator set allows for implementation in four tiers, each representing increased potential for monitoring and social learning. The indicator set can be adjusted on the basis of new findings, and the participatory approach can be extrapolated to other situations. Copyright © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry     

Changing rainfall patterns and farmers’ adaptation through soil water management practices in semi-arid eastern Kenya

There is limited documentation of soil and water management technologies that enhance adaptation to climate change in drylands of Kenya. Rainfall patterns were analyzed in the semi-arid Machakos and Makueni counties of eastern Kenya using historical data. A total of forty-three smallholder farmers implementing soil water management practices were sampled, and an estimate of the seasonal water budget for current crop and livestock production systems computed. Analysis of rainfall amounts and distribution shows increasing variability, with the average annual total amounts decreasing over the past 50 years. Furthermore, the number of rainy days within the March-April-May season that can support crop growth is gradually decreasing. These decreases are however not significant at P < 0.05. There were more seasons with low rainfall amounts compared to those with high rainfall amounts. All these subject the smallholder crop and livestock production system to limited soil moisture. Farmers address the risk by harnessing and utilizing green (rainfall stored in soil) and blue (rainfall collected into storage tanks) water technologies. The study found that farmers in these semi-arid counties practice fifteen diverse soil and water management interventions on their farms. The most popular practices are cut-off drains, retention ditches, terracing, run-off harvesting, and agroforestry. The estimated seasonal water budget indicates the need for integrated soil and water management interventions to address the crop and livestock production constraints.     

Herbicide Research on Groundnut and Sorghum under Farmer Conditions in the Indian Semi-arid Tropics

Abstract

Plots 17 × 5 m were laid out in farmers' fields in three villages. Treatments (replicated thrice) included atrazine (0.5 or 1.0 kg a.i./ha) on sorghum and nitrofen (0.75 and 1.5 kg a.i./ha) on groundnuts with or without hand-weeding or farmers normal weed control. Groundnuts were unfertilized, sorghum received 20 or 80 kg N/ha. Cooperating farmers were allocated plots for traditional weed control, other operations were carried out by research staff. Some plots were discounted because farmers withdrew cooperation or did not participate correctly or because of flooding. In groundnuts nitrofen alone was inferior to nitrofen + one hand-weeding. In sorghum there were no differences between high and low fertilizer regimes. Atrazine gave superior yields to farmers' weed control. All treatments were better than the unweeded control. Generally farmers fields had low weed populations due to good, timely control and low soil fertility. Herbicides are not economic at present. Problems associated with research in farmers fields included: selection of farmers who would participate correctly, variability between different farmers' weeding practices and between different fields due to previous crops and cultural practices; lack of control of farmers weeding operations and the distance of experimental plots from the research station. The authors suggest that small experiments with only 4-6 treatments are easier for participating farmers to comprehend, selecting suitable size and shape of plots is important and that if many farmers are involved the number of replicates can be reduced.     

Farmers' perspectives on the biotic constraint of Striga hermonthica and its control in western Kenya

Witchweed, Striga hermonthica (hereafter, referred to as “Striga”), is a major biotic constraint to cereal production in sub‐Saharan Africa. The parasitic plant is a socioeconomic problem that has forced some resource‐poor farmers to abandon their farms due to high infestation. This study was designed in order to elucidate farmers' perceptions of Striga control measures and to determine their potential adoption in two villages in western Kenya. Participatory rural appraisals and individual interviews were conducted in 2009 and 2010 in a sample of 128 and 120 households in Kaura and Kogweno‐Oriang villages in Homabay and Rachuonyo districts, respectively. The results revealed that crop production was the main occupation in most households. The farmers identified Striga as one of the major constraints to maize, sorghum, and finger millet production. According to the farmers, the most popular control measures were hand‐pulling, crop rotation, and intercropping, even though rotational systems might need a longer timeframe to reduce the soil seed bank of Striga. Although the level of Striga infestation and damage were increasing in the farmers' fields, the adoption of the control options was limited. The reason for the low adoption level of the control methods by the farmers is because they are “too risky” as there is no guarantee of a direct pay‐off in increased crop yield. Farmer‐led evaluation and adaptation of the various Striga control technologies in real‐life situations will facilitate the choice of appropriate options and facilitate their uptake.     

Pests,diseases and weeds of Napier grass,Pennisetum purpureum: A review

Napier or elephant grass ( Pennisetum purpureum Schum.) is an important fodder crop in East Africa, particularly in Kenya, where it is used almost exclusively for feeding dairy cattle in cut-and-carry systems. A smut pathogen ( Ustilago kamerunensis P. & H. Sydow) was recently reported as being in the country, causing serious losses in biomass. A preliminary investigation of the grass/smut pathosystem revealed very little information on worldwide pests and diseases of the host. Data were not easily accessible and there was no central reference. This review attempts to address this gap in the literature, particularly with regard to the outbreak of U. kamerunensis, which may focus attention on the pest management of a valuable but comparatively neglected crop.     

Farmers' perceptions of sorghum stem-borer and farm management practices in eastern Ethiopia

A survey of 90 farmers, randomly selected over six sorghum-growing districts in eastern Ethiopia was carried out during July to August, 2001 in the long rainy season. The study investigated farmers' perceptions of the importance of stem-borer and farm practices influencing the pest. Sorghum farming was characterized by smallholdings with an average land size of 4.3 ha, an average family size of 6 and an average yield of 878?kg ha^???1. Farmers cited pests, drought, and shortage of seed, land and labour as the main constraints upon sorghum production. Stem-borers were perceived to be the major pests requiring control. The majority of the farmers never applied chemical insecticides against stem-borers due to lack of capital and unavailability of insecticides. Because of restricted access to improved varieties, farmers largely used local cultivars of sorghum selected for yield potential but with little emphasis on insect resistance. Very few farmers destroyed sorghum residues after harvest. The majority of farmers grew sorghum under intercropping mainly due to the high yield expected. Crop rotation in sorghum fields was not widely practised due to land shortage.     

Impacts of livestock grazing on a savanna grassland in Kenya

The dynamics of most rangelands in Kenya remain to be poorly understood.This paper provides baseline information on the response of a semiarid rangeland under different livestock grazing regimes on land inhabited by the Massai people in the east side of Amboseli National Park in Kenya.The data were collected from grasslands designated into four types:(1) grassland from previous Massai settlements that had been abandoned for over twenty years;(2) grassland excluded from livestock grazing for eight years;(3) a dry season grazing area;and (4) a continuous grazing area where grazing occurred throughout all seasons.Collected data included grass species composition,grass height,inter-tuft distance,standing grass biomass and soil characteristics.The results indicated that continuous grazing area in semiarid rangelands exhibited loss of vegetation with negative,long-term effects on grass functional qualities and forage production,whereas grassland that used traditional Maasai grazing methods showed efficiency and desirable effects on the rangelands.The results also showed that abandoned homestead sites,though degraded,were important nutrient reservoirs.     

Motivating rice farmers in the Mekong Delta to modify pest management and related practices through mass media

A participatory planning process was applied to develop a media campaign to motivate rice farmers in the Mekong Delta to modify pest management practices together with seed and fertilizer inputs. Locally named ‘Ba Giam Ba Tang’ or ‘Three Reductions, Three Gains’, campaigns were launched in two provinces, Can Tho and Tien Giang. In both provinces, farmers' practices changed significantly. Their insecticide sprays reduced by 13–33% while their seed rates dropped ～10% and nitrogen rates, ～7% and proportion of farmers using insecticides declined by ～11%. These practices were supported by modifications in belief attitudes that favored high inputs. Farmers who reported significant reductions in the three inputs also changed their perception of yield loss. The campaigns in Can Tho and Tien Giang had significant multiplier effects. They stimulated several provincial governments as well as the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development to provide additional resources to reproduce the materials and campaign process for local use which eventually reached more than 3 million farmers in south and central Vietnam.     

Rangeland Monitoring and Fire: Wildfires and Prescribed Burning,Nutrient Cycling,and Plant Succession

Prescribed fires are used to manipulate and manage rangelands, but effective monitoring techniques are needed to ensure that management goals and objectives are being met. The application of an effective fire program on rangelands is not a simple task. Overgrazing by livestock since the early development of the livestock industry has altered the vegetative complex on most rangelands with an increase in woody plants. Because of its relatively low cost, prescribed fire, both cool and warm season, are sustainable practices if proper grazing management is part of the management scheme. Grazing management and prescribed fire have often been treated as separate issues by rangeland managers; however, development and application of an effective prescribed burning program requires an understanding of the relationship between fire and grazing. Ranchers need fuel (grass) to burn and they also need income from livestock, which requires forage (grass, a major part of forage). In the short-term, fire reduces carrying capacity for livestock but, in the long-term, fire increases grass production, resulting in increased carrying capacity. Therefore, some monitoring technique is needed that will allow the manager to budget grass for both fuel and forage. The Grazing Manager (TGM) is a software program that projects both forage production (expressed as animal unit days) and, animal demand (expressed as animal unit days) for each forage year. TGM has been successfully used on the Texas A&M University Research Station at Sonora as a tool to integrate prescribed fire and grazing management.     

Cereal stem borer management practices in subsistence farms of eastern Ethiopia

In eastern Ethiopia, empirical information regarding farmers’ perceptions and implementation of research results about stem borer management is either scarce or unavailable. A survey of 120 farmers from four maize- and sorghum-growing districts of eastern Ethiopia was carried out in 2014 to study common management practices of cereal stem borers. Drought, pests, and land shortage were reported as the main constraints to maize and sorghum production in the area. Stem borers were perceived as the most important pests in these crops. The estimated yield losses from stem borers ranged from 10% to 50%. The majority of the farmers reported not using chemical insecticides to control these pests due to lack of capital, unavailability, and lack of knowledge. Moreover, most farmers were not using improved maize varieties. Cultural practices were found to be the most promising control method of cereal stem borers. Despite differences among districts, farmers practiced crop rotation, intercropping, manipulation of planting dates, crop residue disposal, and post-harvest tillage as common control strategies, even though a considerable proportion of the farmers was not implementing these practices sufficiently. The design of appropriate strategies for stem borer management based on farmers’ needs and priorities should be promoted.     

Integrated pest management of coffee for small-scale farmers in East Africa: needs and limitations

Coffee in East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda) is an important cash and export crop for small-scale farmers. The crop suffers heavy yield losses due to damage caused by a wide range of indigenous pests (insects, diseases, nematodes and weeds). Current recommended pest control measures include a combination of cultural, resistant/tolerant cultivars and the use of broad spectrum chemical pesticides. Chemical pesticides are far more popular at the farm level than any of the other recommended pest control measures. Coffee pest control strategies are often aimed at individual pests with little consideration of the implications for the total coffee pest complex and its agro-ecosystem. This unilateral approach has resulted in increased pest pressure on coffee and some of its companion crops, outbreak of new pests of coffee, development of pest strains resistant to the cheap and commonly available chemical pesticides, increased environmental problems, increased health risks to man and livestock and an overall increase in the costs of coffee production, thus forcing many farmers to neglect their coffee plantations. Measures to alleviate the above problems, particularly the high production costs, are needed to improve coffee production and increase the cash return to the small-scale farmer. Integrated pest management (IPM) offers the best prospects for solving the above problems. However, lack of national IPM policies, poor extension systems, inefficient research-extension-farmer linkage and the lack of a holistic approach will delay the development and implementation of appropriate, acceptable and sustainable IPM practices.     

Pest Management in Traditional Tropical Agroecosystems: Lessons for Pest Prevention Research and Extension

Based on current agroecological theory and IPM practices, this review explores the role of traditional practices, involving site selection, soil management, timing of planting and harvesting, crop resistance, intercropping, weed management, harvest residue management, post-harvest management, natural enemies management, mechanical control, repellents and traps in the natural regulation of potential pests. In synthesis, the literature suggests that although pest management professionals focus their efforts on pest control, the preventative approach taken by traditional farmers is more effective. Potential constraints to the implementation of this preventive pest management approach include:(1) lack of integration of ecological theory and pest management, (2) lack of cooperation among social and biological scientists, and (3) lack of real efforts to work with farmers as equals and support mechanisms that protect their knowledge. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Possibilities of Biological Control of Liver Flukes

A survey was conducted to gain insight into the perceptions of Lesotho's farmers with regard to insect pests of maize and sorghum, to identify management practices that could impact on stalk-borer numbers and to shed light on other farming practices such as variety selection and crop residue management. Field studies were conducted to determine the incidence and distribution of Busseola fusca (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Chilo partellus (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) larvae in sorghum and maize residues and to determine the effect of certain crop residue management practices on stalk-borer survival. Results indicated that farmers regard stalk-borers as important pests that sometimes need to be controlled. However, most farmers never apply control measures, mainly due to lack of resources. Residues of maize and sorghum plants are largely used as animal fodder with maize being cut and fed to animals after harvest. Sorghum crop residues are largely left on fields after harvest to be used by free-grazing animals. While stacks of maize stalks were not important in the winter survival of B. fusca larvae, stacking of sorghum ensures winter survival of C. partellus larvae. Detasselling of maize plants is commonly done at plant senescence and the upper halves of plants are fed to animals. Detasselling of maize plants had no effect on the number of borer larvae in plants at harvest.