Origin, course and distribution of the hypoglossal nerve in the New Zealand rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus L)

With 8 figures SUMMARY: This study aimed at revealing the origin, course and distribution of the hypoglossal nerve in 20 adult male New Zealand rabbits. In all the animals dissected, the hypoglossal nerve arose from the ventrolateral side of the medulla oblongata with two main roots and gave off a descending branch to the ansa cervicalis before reaching the division of the common carotid artery. This branch was not seen on the right side of only one case. At the lateral aspect of the hyoglossus muscle, the nerve then divided into the lateral and medial main branches, sent branches to the styloglossus, hyoglossus, genioglossus and geniohyoideus muscles and terminated in the intrinsic tongue muscles. A communicating branch was observed between the hypoglossal and accessory nerves in the right side of one animal and between the hypoglossal nerve and the ganglion nodosum in the right retropharyngeal area of another animal. An additional branch was observed innervating the stylohyoideus muscle in one animal only. A lateral lingual-hypoglossal communication was also seen between the lateral branch of the hypoglossal nerve and terminal branches of the lingual nerve.     

Morphological Studies of the Tongue of the Egyptian Water Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and Their Lingual Papillae Adaptation for Its Feeding Habits

This work was conducted to describe the morphological characters of the tongue of Egyptian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). The lingual root and the dorsal middle region of apex and body in addition to the dorsal and ventral surface of lingual tip were devoided from any fungiform papillae. The lingual tip contains conical papillae only. The ventral surface of lingual apex was divided into two portions by the U‐shaped fungiform line into papillary and non‐papillary region. Histological investigation on the lingual surface epithelium and lamina propria submucosa reflects differences in these layers in different parts of the tongue. By SEM, there are two subtypes of filiform papillae: caudally directed papillae on dorsal surface and rostrally directed papillae on the lateral region of ventral surface of lingual apex. There are two subtypes of conical papillae: small slightly rostrally directed papillae on dorsal and ventral surface of lingual tip and large posteromedially directed papillae on dorsal surface of lingual root. The rounded circumvallate papillae consisted of round bulb surrounded by deep circular groove, which surrounded by circular pad. Higher magnification of filiform papillae indicates the presence of microcrests separated by microgrooves, and these microgrooves consisted of microrodes. The fungiform surface having micropores on the tip of elevated tubercle for taste buds pores. All these observed structures (microcrests, microgrooves, microrodes, tubercles, microridges) in a higher magnification allow animals to transport food particles through the oral cavity and help in the defensive behaviour. There are strong correlations between the tongue anatomical characteristics and its functions.     

Anatomical study of blood supply to the cervical spinal cord in the guinea pig

The aim of this study was to describe the arterial arrangement of the cervical spinal cord in the guinea pig. The study was carried out on 20 adult English self guinea pigs using corrosion and dissection technique. Batson's corrosion casting kit no. 17^© was used as a casting medium. The origin of the ventral spinal artery from the left vertebral artery was found on average in 35% of the cases and from the right vertebral artery on average in 40% of the cases. The ventral spinal artery with origin from the anastomosis of two medial branches was found on average in 25% of the cases. The presence of ventral radicular branches of rami spinales entering the ventral spinal artery in the cervical region was observed in 42% of the cases on the right side and in 58% of the cases on the left side. The presence of dorsal radicular branches of rami spinales that reached the spinal cord was observed in 63% of the cases on the left side and in 37% of the cases on the right side. The number of radicular branches supplying the spinal cord is greater in guinea pig than in humans.     

Collateral vessel development after chronic bilateral common carotid artery occlusion in the dog

The functional response to occlusion of arteries supplying the head has been found to be much less severe in th dog than in man, indicating that a more significant collateral development occurs in the dog. To document the anatomic response to chronic occlusion of vessels supplying the head, patterns of collateral vessel growth and development were studied by corrosion casting in adult mongrel dogs 8 weeks after bilateral ligation of the common carotid artery. Dissection of the casts revealed two consistent and bilateral anastomotic connections: (i) internal carotid artery to maxillary artery (anastomotic artery) and (ii) internal carotid artery to ascending pharyngeal artery. Also present in all of the casts was a connection between one common carotid artery and both vertebral arteries, which has been designated as the deep collateral vessel. Significant collateral connections did not occur between the orbital vessels or between analogous vessels of the right and the left sides.     

Anatomical relationship between the collecting system and the intrarenal arteries in the rabbit: contribution for an experimental model

Intrarenal anatomy was studied in detail to evaluate how useful rabbits could be as a urologic model. Only one renal artery was observed, which was divided into dorsal and ventral branches in all cases. Three segmental arteries (cranial, mesorenal and caudal) was the most frequent branching pattern found in both the dorsal and ventral division. There was an important artery related to the ureteropelvic junction in both dorsal and ventral surfaces in all specimens. The cranial pole was supplied by both dorsal and ventral divisions of the renal artery in 23 of 41 casts (56%). Although the cranial pole of the rabbit kidney could be useful as a model because of the resemblances with human kidney, the different relationship between the intrarenal arteries and the kidney collecting system in other regions of the kidney must be taken into consideration by the urologists, when using rabbit kidney in urological research.     

Investigations on the light and scanning electron microscopic structure of the lingual papillae in the angora goat (Capra hircus): II. Mechanical papillae

This study was conducted to examine the light microscopy (LM) and scanning electron microscopic (SEM) structures of mechanical papillae on the tongue in the Angora goat (Capra hircus). As study materials, the tongues of four adult female Angora goats were used. The samples were collected from the dorsal surfaces of the apex, body, root and torus of the tongue and the ventral surfaces of the lingual apex for light and scanning electron microscopic examinations. Three types of mechanical papillae were seen in Angora goat tongue: papilla filiformes, papilla lentiformes and papilla conicae.The filiform papillae were detected in the dorsal surface of the tongue from lingual apex to lingual torus, and in the ventro-lateral of the lingual apex and on both sides of the lingual torus. The morphological differences were observed in filiform papillae according to their location in the tongue. The lenticular papillae settled on the centre of the lingual torus. Two types of these papillae, irregular-round and pyramid-shaped were identified. The conical papillae were scattered all over the lingual torus, except for the central part and were also seen on the root of the tongue. In the light microscopic examination, it was found that mechanical papillae had a stratified squamous epithelium and a varying degree of keratin layer on epithelial surfaces. In this study, by examining the light and scanning electron microscopic structure of the mechanical papillae in the Angora goat tongue, their similarities and differences with other domestic and wild ruminant species were determined.     

A bronchopulmonary artery fistula in a horse

A 24-year-old, Thoroughbred gelding presented with difficulty breathing for a few days and intermittent nose bleeding before dying. At necropsy, the bronchoesophageal artery and the bronchial artery that flowed into the left anterior lobe were tortuous and dilated, and it was found that dilated tortuous branches of the bronchial artery ran over the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the left anterior lobe. Histopathologically, an anastomosis between a muscular artery and an elastic artery were demonstrated, which were identified as bronchial and pulmonary arteries, respectively. Based on the gross and histopathological findings, a bronchopulmonary artery fistula was diagnosed. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first case report of a pulmonary vascular anastomosis in a horse.     

Scanning Electron Microscopic Study of the Tongue in the Owl (Strix uralensis)

The dorsal lingual surfaces of adult owl (Strix uralensis) were examined by scanning electron microscopy. The length of the tongue was about 2 cm. The tip of the tongue of the owl was bifid. Three parts were distinguished in the tongue of the owl: the apex, the body and the root of the tongue. The conical region between the lingual apex and lingual root was a very wide area. There were thread‐shaped processes/cells of epithelium in the lingual apex. The small or large conical papillae were observed on the lingual body. The many openings of the lingual glands existed in the lingual body and lingual root.     

Macro anatomical investigations of the cranial cervical ganglion in domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus)

In this study, the left and right cranial cervical ganglia (ganglion cervicale craniale) of eight young (four male, four female) domestic pigs weighing around 70-80 kg were inspected macro anatomically. The cranial cervical ganglion (CCG) was found cranio-ventrally of the distal ganglion of the vagus nerve, medial of the jugular process extremity, ventral of the atlas, dorsal of the epiglottis base and medial of the common root (CR) established by the internal carotid and occipital arteries. The internal carotid nerve and jugular nerve ramified from the cranial part of CCG. The jugular nerve gave branches that merged with the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves. Other nerve branches originating from the cranial part of the ganglion reached to the external carotid artery and CR. The internal carotid nerve varied among cadavers in number of branches (two to four). These branches did not travel along the side of the internal carotid artery. The central part of CCG gave thin nerve branches that reached to various anatomical structures including the first and second cervical nerves, wall of the pharynx, accessory nerve, hypoglossal nerve, vagus nerve, external carotid artery and CR. The caudal part of CCG gave nerve branches that merged with the vagus, cranial laryngeal nerves, and common carotid artery. The external carotid nerves, which were two or three in number, also originated from the caudal part of CCG. In conclusion, the nerves ramifying from CCG of the pig varied in number among cadavers. Compared with literature raised in other species, there are also differences in number of nerve branches and course pattern of these nerves.     

Morphological features of the Egyptian Ossimi sheep tongue: New scanning electron microscopic insights into its papillary system adaptations to Egyptian ecological conditions

The current study aims to illustrate the gross and scanning electron microscopic characterizations and ultrastructural adaptation of the lingual papillary system of Egyptian Ossimi sheep to Egyptian ecological conditions. The tongue had three regions: the apex (with a slightly bifurcated tip), the body (subdivided into rostral and caudal parts) and the root (subdivided into rostral papillary and caudal non-papillary parts). Torus linguae had two parts: the triangular rostral part (the caudal part of the body) and the quadrilateral wide part (the rostral part of the root). The lingual papillary system had mechanical (filiform, conical and lentiform) and gustatory (fungiform and circumvallate) types. Filiform papillae were heavily scattered on the dorsal surface of the apex, the rostral part of the body and the ventral surface of the papillary region of the tip. Filiform papillae had five subtypes (ventral and dorsal processed, triangular, leaf-like and triangular-processed papillae), while the conical papillae had three subtypes: two lingual (small, large) and one paralingual (elongated pointed), and the fungiform had two subtypes: the high-density ovoid (on the ventral surface of the tip) and round papillae (on the dorsal surface) that possessed a high number of taste pores, not previously described. They ranged from 5 to 10 for ovoid and 25 to 25 for round papillae. Each circumvallate papilla had an ovoid bulb (with 2–5 taste pores) encircled by an annular groove and two pads (i.e. not described previously). The papillary system's regional divergence was specialized for their harsh and semi-harsh diet.     

Morphological Study of the Persian Leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) Tongue

This study described the morphological features of the Persian leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) tongue using light and scanning electron microscopy techniques. The keratinized filiform papillae were distributed all over the entire dorsal surface of the tongue and contained small processes. They were changed into a cylindrical shape in the body and conical shape in the root. The fungiform papillae were found on the apex and margin of the tongue. Few taste pores were observed on the dorsal surface of each papilla. The foliate papillae on the margins of the tongue were composed of several laminae and epithelial fissures. Taste buds were not seen within the non‐keratinized epithelium. The vallate papillae were six in total and arranged in a “V” shape just rostral to the root. Each papilla was surrounded by a groove and pad. Taste buds were seen within their lateral walls. Lyssa was visible on the ventral surface of the tongue tip and was found as cartilaginous tissue surrounded by thin connective tissue fibres. The core of the tongue was composed of lingual glands, skeletal muscle and connective tissue. These glands were confined to the posterior portion of the tongue and were composed of many serous cells and a few mucous cells. The results of this study contributed to the knowledge of the morphological characteristics of the tongue of wild mammals and provided data for the comparison with other mammals.     

Distribution of the lingual tonsils of cattle designated as specified risk materials

The tonsils of cattle, including palatine tonsils, pharyngeal tonsils, tubal tonsils and lingual tonsils, are designated as specified risk materials (SRM). However, the detailed distribution of lingual tonsils in cattle is unknown. We therefore histologically examined their distribution in 198 tongue specimens from cattle. The examinations confirmed that the presence of lingual tonsils was limited to the tissue of the lamina propria on the dorsal and lateral aspects of the tongue, not reaching the muscular layer below. More than 90% of the lingual tonsils were located between the distribution center of the vallate papillae and the radix linguae (root of the tongue). However, they were also found in the area extending from the lingual torus to the rostral-most vallate papilla in an individual, suggesting that the complete removal of the lingual tonsils requires elimination of the lamina propria extending from the lingual torus to the radix linguae.     

Teratogenic effects of the interaction acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) and ethanol: morphologic and morphometric evaluation of the lingual epithelium in rat fetuses

The objective of the present work was to evaluate the teratogenic effects of the interaction between acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) and ethanol on the epithelium of the lingual mucosa in rat fetuses. On the 10th pregnancy day, a single intraperitoneal ethanol dose (2.96 g/kg body weight) (Group I), ASA (200 mg/kg body weight) (Group II) and ASA plus ethanol, in the same doses (Group III), or saline (Group IV - control), were administrated. The epithelial alterations were assessed by means of histological and morphometric methods, on posterior dorsal, anterior dorsal and ventral regions of the tongue. ASA reduced, in rat fetuses, the ethanol deleterious effects on nuclear size in the epithelial prickle cell of the lingual mucosa. On the other hand, ASA did not influence the effects of ethanol in both epithelial layers of the lingual mucosa, when the nuclear shape, cell volume or epithelial layers thickness were evaluated.     

Morphology of the Lingual Dorsal Surface and Oral Taste Buds in Italian Lizard (Podarcis sicula)

With 4 figures The Italian lizard (Podarcis sicula) is the most diffused reptile in Italy, but it is also present in other European countries. This lizard belongs to the Lacertidae family, lives near walls, slants and along the borders of the paths; its diet includes bugs and aracnids. No data are so far available in literature about the three‐dimensional morphology of the tongue of Podarcis sicula, therefore the aim of the present paper was to study by scanning electron and light microscopy the three‐dimensional characteristics of the dorsal lingual surface and moreover the presence of chemosensory receptors like the taste buds in the oral cavity. Our results demonstrate that the Podarcis sicula tongue is a triangular muscular membranous organ, dorsoventrally flattened and that three different areas can be observed: a bifid apex, a body and a root. No papillae were observed in the apex, characterized by a flattened mucosa and by two deep median pouches. In the body cylindrical papillae with a flat surface are present, aborally gradually substituted by imbricated papillae. Foliate‐like papillae were observed in the lateral parts of the tongue body. No sensory structures were showed on the lingual dorsal surface, while they were numerous in the oral cavity, particularly on the gingival epithelium. The light microscopy shows, on the dorsal surface, a stratified pavimentous not keratinized epithelium, conversely keratinized along the ventral surface. Many caliciform cells on the lateral parts of the papillae, deputed to the secretion of mucus, were also observed. Therefore, the results obtained in this paper could give a contribution to the knowledge of the tongue anatomy in a species widely diffused in different European countries and could be of help for clinical purposes in reptiles.     

The Lingual Dorsal Surface of the Blue-Tongue Skink (Tiliqua scincoides)

The blue-tongue lizard ( Tiliqua scincoides ) is a variety of large skink common throughout Australia. There are seven species of Tiliqua and all of them have long bodies, short limbs and short and robust tails. T. scincoides occurs in a wide range of habitats; its diet is omnivorous. When threatened, it opens the mouth and protrudes its characteristic large fleshy cobalt blue tongue. It is currently found as a popular species and also as a pet animal in the European countries. No data are available in literature about the morphology of the tongue of T. scincoides ; therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate by means of scanning electron microscopy and light microscopy, the anatomy of the dorsal lingual surface. Our results demonstrate the presence of a tongue tip with a smooth surface without papillae. The foretongue was characterized by a stratified epithelium with foliate-like papillae and deep inter-papillar spaces in the middle part and cylindrical papillae with a flat surface in the lateral parts. All the posterior area of the tongue was characterized by more compacted papillae and the inter-papillar spaces were very narrow. Light microscopy showed the presence of melanin throughout the tongue. No taste buds were recognized on the lingual dorsal surface. Therefore, the papillae probably have a mechanical function showing an important role in the swallowing phase. The morphology of the tongue surface can be correlated to the diet and, different roles, as in other examined species, can be hypothesized for different areas.     

Scanning electron microscopic and histological features of the oral cavity of the Egyptian tortoise (Testudo kleinmanni)

This investigation was led to depict the structural and functional adaptations of the oral cavity of herbivorous Egyptian tortoises using scanning electron and light microscopes. The SEM showed that the triangular papillary tongue possessed three conical papillary subtypes: the rectangular conical on the tip, the round conical on the rest of the dorsal lingual surface and the elongated conical on the caudal portion of the lingual wing. The presence of the serrated lips with their valves compensated for the absence of the teeth. The rostral part had a vomeronasal opening while the middle part had the choana, but the caudal part had numerous openings of the salivary glands. There are three palatine folds: a single median palatine fold, two peripheral palatine folds and the choanal fold. The current histological results show the keratinized dorsal lingual surface, in which the keratinized layer extended to cover the papillae. Two types of lingual glands, according to their position, are papillary superficial and deep lingual glands. Papillary or superficial glands open in the interpapillary spaces via narrow openings, while the deep glands are surrounded by well-developed muscles and open via wide openings on the dorsal lingual surface. An entoglossal cartilaginous structure of hyaline cartilage was found in the mid- and hindtongue, with numerous chondrocytes lodged within the lacunae. Our results conclude that the oral cavity of the herbivorous Egyptian tortoise was adapted to the dietary and vigorous demands of the Egyptian fauna.     

Absence of hyaline cartilage in the tongue of 'Caspian miniature horse'

Histology of the tongue, including apex, root and body, in four adult Caspian miniature horses was examined. Serial sections with 6 mum thickness were stained with haematoxylin-eosin and Masson trichrome and studied under light microscope. The tongue was covered by stratified squamous epithelium. It was thick and keratinized bearing numerous lingual papillae on the dorsum, mostly filiform with a very fine keratinized thread projecting above the surface and bending backward. The fungiform papillae were sparsely scattered among the filiform papillae and covered with keratinized squamous epithelium. Few taste buds were detected on it. The two very large vallate papillae were detected on the dorsum, just rostral to the root, which were covered with stratified squamous epithelium with relatively high amounts of taste buds in the epithelium of the surrounding grooves. The foliate papillae were present near the palatoglossal arch and had a few taste buds. The epithelium covering the ventral surface of the tongue was thin and keratinized. The lingual muscle core consisted of transverse, longitudinal and perpendicular bundles of skeletal muscle fibres. Clusters of minor salivary glands were present between the muscle fibres and lamia propria. Most of the lingual glands were mucous and most of the gustatory ones were serous type. The mid-dorsal special structure of the tongue (dorsal lingual cartilage) contained sparse skeletal muscle fibres and was rich in white adipose tissue. Hyaline cartilage, routinely observed in this structure in the horses, was not detected in Caspian miniature horse.     

COLLATERAL PULMONARY CIRCULATION IN DOGS EXPERIMENTALLY INFECTED WITH DIROFILARIA IMMITIS: ITS ANGIOGRAPHIC EVALUATION*

Collateral pulmonary circulation was evaluated angiographically 11 months after experimental infection of dogs with either 25 or 100 infective larvae of Dirofilaria immitis. In both groups, collateral pulmonary circulation developed from bronchial arteries and esophageal branches of the left gastric artery. Of the four dogs receiving 25 larvae, one had no detectable collateral circulation, one developed collateral pulmonary circulation from the bronchial arteries only, and two had collateral pulmonary circulation from the bronchial arteries and esophageal branches of the left gastric artery. Of the three dogs receiving 100 larvae, all had collateral pulmonary circulation from the bronchial arteries and the esophageal branches of the left gastric artery. Bronchial artery collateral pulmonary circulation was more extensive in the 100-larvae dogs than in the 25-larvae dogs. Collateral pulmonary circulation from the left gastric artery esophageal branches was similar in both dog groups. Angiographically detectable collateral pulmonary circulation developed within the first year of heaertworm infection. In some respects, the extent of collateral pulmonary circulation development was related to the severity of heartworm infection.     

The Arterial Supply of the Carpal Joint in the Bactrian Camel (Camelus Bactrianus)

The arterial supply of the six carpal joints was studied in Bactrian camels. The arterial branches supplying the carpal joints were the proximal medial dorsal, middle medial dorsal, distal medial dorsal, proximal lateral dorsal, distal lateral dorsal, proximal medial palmar, distal medial palmar, lateral palmar, proximal palmar and dorsal palmar carpi and the dorsal interosseous antebrachium branches. Some small unnamed branches supplied the diverticulum and the antebrachiocarpal joint capsule. All these arteries arose from the lateral and medial branches of the radial artery.