Medicinal plants used for dogs in Trinidad and Tobago

This paper documents ethnoveterinary medicines used to treat dogs in Trinidad and Tobago. In 1995, a 4-stage process was used to conduct the research and document the ethnoveterinary practices. Twenty-eight ethnoveterinary respondents were identified using the school-essay method, which is a modified rapid rural appraisal (RRA) technique. Semi-structured interviews were held with these respondents as well as with 30 veterinarians, 27 extension officers and 19 animal-health assistants and/or agricultural officers, and the seven key respondents that they identified. The final step involved hosting four participatory workshops with 55 of the respondents interviewed to discuss the ethnoveterinary data generated from the interviews and to determine dosages for some of the plants mentioned. Supplementary interviews were conducted in 1997 and 1998.

Seeds of Carica papaya, and leaves of Cassia alata, Azadirachta indica, Gossypium spp., Cajanus cajan and Chenopodium ambrosiodes are used as anthelmintics. The anthelmintics Gossypium spp. and Chenopodium ambrosiodes are the most frequently used species. Crescentia cujete pulp, Musa spp. stem exudate, the inside of the pods of Bixa orellana, leaves of Cordia curassavica and Eclipta alba plant tops are used for skin diseases. Musa spp. stem exudate, seeds of Manilkara zapota, Pouteria sapota and Mammea americana and leaves of Cordia curassavica, Scoparia dulcis and Nicotiana tabacum are used to control ectoparasites. Dogs are groomed with the leaves of Cordia curassavica, Bambusa vulgaris and Scoparia dulcis. Psidium guajava buds and leaves and the bark of Anacardium occidentale are used for diarrhoea. Owners attempt to achieve milk let-down with a decoction of the leaves of Stachytarpheta jamaicensis. The plant uses parallel those practised in human folk medicine in other Caribbean countries and in other tropical countries.     

Seroepidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in seals around Hokkaido, Japan

Serological analysis was performed to detect Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infection in seals in Hokkaido. Serum samples were collected from 322 Kuril harbor seals (Phoca vitulina stejnegeri) at Nosappu, Akkeshi and Erimo, from 46 spotted seals (P. largha) at Nosappu, Erimo, Yagishiri Island, Hamamasu and Syakotan, and from 4 ribbon seals (P. fasciata) and a bearded seal (Erignathus barbatus) at Nosappu between 1998 and 2006. Recombinant surface antigen of T. gondii (SAG2t) and N. caninum (NcSAG1t) were used as antigens for ELISA to detect antibodies. Antibodies against SAG2t were detected from 4% of 77 Kuril harbor seals at Nosappu in 2005. Antibodies against NcSAG1t were detected from 2% (1/66) in 2003, 5% (4/79) in 2004 and 10% (8/77) in 2005 of Kuril harbor seals and 11% of 9 spotted seals in 2004 sampled at Nosappu. Eight percent of 12 Kuril harbor seals from Akkeshi and 25% of 4 spotted seals from Erimo in 2005 also contained antibodies against NcSAG1t. These suggest sporadic infection of T. gondii and N. caninum in Kuril harbor seals and spotted seals in Hokkaido. Of the ELISA-positive seals, 2 seals having anti-SAG2t antibodies and 3 seals having anti-NcSAG1t antibodies in 2005 were judged to be juveniles that have no maternal antibodies. These suggest that the protozoan infections have occurred in recent years. Infection of terrestrial protozoa such as T. gondii and N. caninum in seals indicates that the sea environment has been contaminated with protozoa.     

Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydophila abortus in caprine abortions in Tobago: a sero-epidemiological study

A sero-epidemiological study was conducted on a goat farm that experienced an abortion epidemic in the 2005 breeding season in Tobago. Serum samples of goats (aborting and non-aborting) and cats were collected, in addition to the use of stored sera from the farm sampled in 2003 and 2004. Farm records on the reproductive and mortality rates for year 2003, 2004 and 2005 were also reviewed. The sera were screened for Toxoplasma gondii antibodies using the latex agglutination test (LAT), Chlamydophila abortus with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Brucella abortus using the buffered plate agglutination test (BPAT). Farm records revealed that for the period 2003-2005, the average kid per doe rate decreased from 2.1 to 1.5, the mortality rate increased from 6.3% in 2002 to 19.4% in 2004 and the fertility rate decreased from 98-99% (2002-2004) to 89% (2005). There was a dramatic increase in the abortion rate from <1% (2002, 2003 and 2004) to 29.2% (2005). Of a total of 161 sera tested comprising 12 from 2003, 89 from 2004 and 70 from 2005, 0 (0.0%), 21 (23.6%) and 45 (64.3%) were positive for T. gondii agglutinins (i.e. titres > or =1 : 64) and the differences were statistically significant (P < 0.05; chi(2)). Of all serum samples tested, only 1 (1.1%) of 89 from 2004 was positive for C. abortus while all the sera tested were negative for B. abortus. Amongst the 24 does which aborted in 2005 and were available for testing in mid-2005, 15 (62.5%) had reciprocal titres of > or =1 : 2048, three (12.5%) each had titres of 1 : 1024, 1 : 256 and < or =1 : 16 i.e. negative. The seroprevalence and titres of does that aborted, 20 (87.0%) of 23, all with titres > or =1 : 256 suggesting current infection, were statistically significantly (P < 0.05; chi(2)) higher than was detected amongst does that delivered normal kids, 25 (53.25) of 47 with 22 (48.8%) having titres of > or =1 : 256. One (50.0%) of two cats caught and tested was seropositive with a reciprocal titre of 128. This is considered the first documentation of T. gondii agglutinins in caprine abortion as well the detection of C. abortus antibodies from livestock in Trinidad. It is concluded that of the three zoonotic abortifacient pathogens tested for, T. gondii appeared to have played some aetiological role in the abortion epidemic investigated.     

Seroepidemiology of leptospirosis in livestock in Trinidad

A study was conducted to determine the seroprevalence of leptospirosis and infecting serovars across livestock (cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs) in Trinidad using the microscopic agglutination test with an international panel of 23 serovars. Of a total of 590 cattle tested, 21.5% were seropositive with agglutinations to 13 of the 23 antigens used in the panel. Icterohaemorrhagiae (9.3%), Sejroe (4.1%), Ballum (4.1%), and Autumnalis (1.9%) were the predominant serogroups detected in the cattle sampled (n = 590). Of 222 sheep tested, 5.0% were seropositive with agglutinations to five serovars belonging to two serogroups. These serogroups were Autumnalis at 2.7%, and Icterohaemorrhagiae at 2.3% of all sheep tested (n = 222). Of a total of 180 goats tested, 3.3% were seropositive, all agglutinating to the Icterohaemorrhagiae serogroup, 1.7% to serovar Copenhageni, 1.1% to serovar Mankarso, and 0.6% to serovar Icterohaemorrhagiae. Among pigs (n = 200), 5.0% were seropositive for five serovars belonging to three serogroups. These serogroups were Icterohaemorrhagiae at 2.5%, Australis at 2%, and Ballum at 0.5%. Overall, age and sex of animals were not significantly associated with leptospirosis with the exception of cattle where age was a significant factor for seropositivity. It was concluded that for livestock, leptospirosis may be an important zoonotic and economic disease, particularly in the case of cattle. It is imperative that the impact of leptospirosis on abortion, stillbirths, and decreased milk production in livestock in the country be assessed.     

Seroepidemiology of infection with Toxoplasma gondii in waste pickers and waste workers in Durango, Mexico

Municipal waste is a potential source of infection for Toxoplasma gondii as it may contain contaminated meat with parasite tissue cysts and cat excrement with parasite oocysts. Therefore, we sought to determine the prevalence of T. gondii infection and associated characteristics in two populations exposed to municipal solid waste in Durango, Mexico. Ninety waste pickers and 83 waste workers of Durango City, Mexico were examined for T. gondii infection. They were tested for anti-T. gondii IgG and IgM antibodies using enzyme-linked immunoassays. In addition, socio-demographic and behavioural characteristics from each participant were obtained. Nineteen (21.1%) of the 90 waste pickers and seven (8.4%) of the 83 waste workers were positive for anti-T. gondii IgG antibodies. The difference in prevalence among the groups was statistically significant (P =0.03). Waste pickers aged 31-50 years showed a significantly higher prevalence (40.9%) than waste workers of the same age group (2.9%, P < 0.001). Anti-T. gondii IgM antibodies were found in two (2.2%) of the waste pickers but in none of the waste workers. The seroprevalence of T. gondii was significantly higher in workers of the waste transfer station (25.0%) than in drivers or helpers of waste vehicles (2.5%) (P =0.03). Multivariate analysis showed that T. gondii infection was associated with consuming food found in the garbage [adjusted odds ratio (OR) = 4.4; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.6-11.8] and with lack of education (adjusted OR = 3.2; 95% CI 1.1-8.8). From this study, we conclude: (i) waste pickers may represent a risk group for T. gondii infection; (ii) lack of education might be a contributing factor for T. gondii infection; (iii) the higher the exposure to garbage, the higher the seroprevalence of T. gondii infection; (iv) Eating food products from the garbage may represent an important route for T. gondii infection.     

北京地区犬猫弓形虫病血清学调查

比较了酶联免疫吸附试验（ELISA）和乳胶凝集试验对犬猫进行龚地弓形虫（Toxoplasma gondii）抗体检测的结果.在66只犬猫的血清中,ELISA方法检测的阳性率为24.0%,乳胶凝集试验阳性率为21.0%,二者的检测结果差异不显著（P＞0.05）.后采用ELISA方法对北京地区家养的159只犬和128只猫进行了弓形虫IGg抗体的检测,共有21只犬（13.21%）和18只猫（14.06%）检测结果为阳性.1岁以下犬（3.70%）、猫（4.35%）低于1至3岁犬（11.29%）和猫（6.98%）的感染率.3～6岁犬猫的感染率分别是27.27%和16.22%,6岁以上犬（30.0%）、猫（32.0%）的感染率最高.不同性别之间感染无明显差异（P＞0.05）.     

A serological survey of Toxoplasma gondii in pet dogs in Nigeria

A serological survey for Toxoplasma gondii infection amongst pet dogs in Zaria, Nigeria was conducted using the indirect haemagglutination technique. Sera were obtained from 100 dogs brought to the Ahmadu Bello University Clinic. Thirty-seven of the dogs tested were seropositive at the screening dilution of 1:64, using the Wellcome ToxHA^(R) kit. No statistically significant difference was observed between males and females or between age groups (P<0·05). The high prevalence of dogs with antibody and the large number of cats, the definitive hosts of T. gondii, in Zaria suggest that more detailed epidemiological studies of this disease need to be conducted in the area.     

Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydophila abortus in Caprine Abortions in Tobago: a Sero‐Epidemiological Study

A sero‐epidemiological study was conducted on a goat farm that experienced an abortion epidemic in the 2005 breeding season in Tobago. Serum samples of goats (aborting and non‐aborting) and cats were collected, in addition to the use of stored sera from the farm sampled in 2003 and 2004. Farm records on the reproductive and mortality rates for year 2003, 2004 and 2005 were also reviewed. The sera were screened for Toxoplasma gondii antibodies using the latex agglutination test (LAT), Chlamydophila abortus with an enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Brucella abortus using the buffered plate agglutination test (BPAT). Farm records revealed that for the period 2003–2005, the average kid per doe rate decreased from 2.1 to 1.5, the mortality rate increased from 6.3% in 2002 to 19.4% in 2004 and the fertility rate decreased from 98–99% (2002–2004) to 89% (2005). There was a dramatic increase in the abortion rate from <1% (2002, 2003 and 2004) to 29.2% (2005). Of a total of 161 sera tested comprising 12 from 2003, 89 from 2004 and 70 from 2005, 0 (0.0%), 21 (23.6%) and 45 (64.3%) were positive for T. gondii agglutinins (i.e. titres ≥1 : 64) and the differences were statistically significant (P < 0.05; χ²). Of all serum samples tested, only 1 (1.1%) of 89 from 2004 was positive for C. abortus while all the sera tested were negative for B. abortus. Amongst the 24 does which aborted in 2005 and were available for testing in mid‐2005, 15 (62.5%) had reciprocal titres of ≥1 : 2048, three (12.5%) each had titres of 1 : 1024, 1 : 256 and ≤1 : 16 i.e. negative. The seroprevalence and titres of does that aborted, 20 (87.0%) of 23, all with titres ≥1 : 256 suggesting current infection, were statistically significantly (P < 0.05; χ²) higher than was detected amongst does that delivered normal kids, 25 (53.25) of 47 with 22 (48.8%) having titres of ≥1 : 256. One (50.0%) of two cats caught and tested was seropositive with a reciprocal titre of 128. This is considered the first documentation of T. gondii agglutinins in caprine abortion as well the detection of C. abortus antibodies from livestock in Trinidad. It is concluded that of the three zoonotic abortifacient pathogens tested for, T. gondii appeared to have played some aetiological role in the abortion epidemic investigated.     

A case of cephalothoracopagus in sheep in Trinidad and Tobago

A case of cephalothoracopagus in sheep complicated with several defects of skeletal, cardiovascular, respiratory, gastrointestinal, and urogenital systems is reported.     

Seroepidemiology of Selected Alphaviruses and Flaviviruses in Bats in Trinidad

A serosurvey of antibodies against selected flaviviruses and alphaviruses in 384 bats (representing 10 genera and 14 species) was conducted in the Caribbean island of Trinidad. Sera were analysed using epitope‐blocking enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) specific for antibodies against West Nile virus (WNV), Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) and eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV), all of which are zoonotic viruses of public health significance in the region. Overall, the ELISAs resulted in the detection of VEEV‐specific antibodies in 11 (2.9%) of 384 bats. Antibodies to WNV and EEEV were not detected in any sera. Of the 384 sera, 308 were also screened using hemagglutination inhibition assay (HIA) for antibodies to the aforementioned viruses as well as St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV; which also causes epidemic disease in humans), Rio Bravo virus (RBV), Tamana bat virus (TABV) and western equine encephalitis virus (WEEV). Using this approach, antibodies to TABV and RBV were detected in 47 (15.3%) and 3 (1.0%) bats, respectively. HIA results also suggest the presence of antibodies to an undetermined flavivirus(es) in 8 (2.6%) bats. Seropositivity for TABV was significantly (P < 0.05; χ²) associated with bat species, location and feeding preference, and for VEEV with roost type and location. Differences in prevalence rates between urban and rural locations were statistically significant (P < 0.05; χ²) for TABV only. None of the aforementioned factors was significantly associated with RBV seropositivity rates.     

Seroepidemiology of Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii infection in yaks (Bos grunniens) in Qinghai, China

Neospora caninum is a protozoan parasite and is closely related to Toxoplasma gondii, but they are antigenically different. N. caninum and T. gondii infection in a variety of animals such as cattle, dogs, and cats has been reported, but there is little information on the infection of these parasites in domestic yaks. Seroprevalence of antibodies to T. gondii and N. caninum in yaks (Bos grunniens) from eight regions of Qinghai, China were investigated by the indirect agglutination test (IAT) and ELISA, respectively. A total of 112 (11.8%) of 946 serum samples were positive for antibodies to T. gondii, and 21 samples (2.2%) were positive to N. caninum. Two of the yaks had antibodies to both parasites. There was no apparent association of T. gondii infection with age of the animals. The results indicate that T. gondii infection is prevalent in Chinese yaks in most parts of Qinghai province and N. caninum infection rate in the same species is relatively low. This is the first large study showing the infection of T. gondii and N. caninum in domestic yaks.     

Protozoal encephalomyelitis of dogs involving Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in New Zealand

In a retrospective study of 15 cases of encephalomyelitis in dogs, three cases of Neospora caninum and two cases of Toxoplasma gondii infection were identified using immunohistochemical staining of central nervous system sections. All cases of neosporosis showed ataxia and progressive hind limb paralysis due to multifocal non-suppurative meningoencephalomyelitis which was most severe in the spinal cord and base of the brain stem. Neospora tissue cysts could not be distinguished morphologically from those of T. gondii using light microscopy, but electron microscopy confirmed their characteristic features. Although Neospora abortion in cattle has only recently been recognised in New Zealand, this study has shown that neosporosis has been present in dogs since at least 1972.     

Prevalence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in cats, dogs and horses in Sweden

Samples of serum or plasma taken during 1986 and 1987 from 244 pet cats, 303 dogs and 219 horses, randomly selected among animals referred to the Animal Clinics of the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, were screened by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii. 42% of cats, 23% of dogs and 1% of horses examined were found seropositive.     

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in dogs from Colombia, South America and genetic characterization of T. gondii isolates

The prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in 309 unwanted dogs from Bogotá, Colombia, South America was determined. Antibodies to T. gondii were assayed by the modified agglutination test (MAT) and found in 52 (16.8%) of 309 dogs with titers of 1:20 in 20, 1:40 in six, 1:80 in 17, 1:160 in three, 1:320 in three, 1:1280 or higher in three. Some organs obtained after necropsy of dogs (hearts, tongues and brains, either separately or pooled) were used in bioassays carried out in mice (37 samples, of which 20 were assayed with separate organs and 17 were assayed with pooled organs), cats (pooled organs from six) and pooled organs of two dogs both in mice and cat. Mice receiving dog tissues were examined for T. gondii infection. Feces of cats that received dog tissues were examined for oocyst shedding. In total, T. gondii was isolated from tissues of 20 dogs (16 by bioassays in mice, 3 by bioassay in cats and 1 by bioassay in mice and cat). All infected mice from 7 of 17 isolates bioassayed in this host died of toxoplasmosis during primary infection. Only 10 of the 20 dogs whose tissues were bioassayed separately induced infections in mice. Interestingly, dog organs varied in their capacity to induce T. gondii infection in mice, hearts and tongues producing more positive results than the brain. The 20 T. gondii isolates obtained from seropositive dogs were PCR-RFLP genotyped using polymorphisms at 10 nuclear markers including SAG1, SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, a new SAG2 and an apicoplast marker Apico. Ten genotypes were revealed. These genotypes are different from the three predominant Types I, II and III lineages that are widely spread in North America and Europe. A new allele denoted u-3 at PK1 locus was identified in three isolates. This result supports previous findings that T. gondii population is highly diverse in Colombia.     

Prevalence of antibodies against Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in dogs and foxes in Austria

Sera from 1770 dogs and 94 red foxes from Austria were examined for antibodies against Neospora caninum using the indirect immunofluorescent antibody test (IFAT). 3.6% of the dogs were seropositive with titres ranging from 1:50 to 1:6400. Dogs from rural areas were significantly more often seropositive for N. caninum than those from the urban area of Vienna (5.3% versus 2.1%). There were no significant differences in sex or breed, but a slight increase in seropositivity with age was apparent, indicating postnatal infection. None of the foxes had antibodies against N. caninum. Additionally, sera from 242 dogs and 94 foxes were examined for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii using the IFAT. Thirty-five percent foxes and 26% of the dogs were positive; 1.7% of the dogs were positive for both parasites. This is the first report of the prevalence of N. caninum infections in dogs and foxes in Austria.     

Protozoa1 encephalomyelitis of dogs involving Neosporum caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in New Zealand

In a retrospective study of 15 cases of encephalomyelitis in dogs, three cases of Neospora caninum and two cases of Toxoplasma gondii infection were identified using immunohistochemical staining of central nervous system sections. All cases of neosporosis showed ataxia and progressive hind limb paralysis due to multifocal non-suppurative meningoencephalomyelitis which was most severe in the spinal cord and base of the brain stem. Neospora tissue cysts could not be distinguished morphologically from those of T. gondii using light microscopy, but electron microscopy confirmed their characteristic features. Although Neospora abortion in cattle has only recently been recognised in New Zealand, this study has shown that neosporosis has been present in dogs since at least 1972.     

The influence of feeding and maintenance system on occurrence of Toxoplasma gondii infections in dogs

Serum samples of 113 dogs visiting "outpatient clinics", 52 dogs kept in shelters and 35 animals from a military dog training centre were examined for Toxoplasma gondii specific antibodies using a latex agglutination test. Significant differences in seroprevalences were found between dogs from the training centre (8.6% of positive results) and the other populations examined (40.7% of positive seroreagents in animals visiting outpatient clinics and 44.2% in the group from shelters, respectively). Among clinic patients, dogs fed raw meat were significantly more frequently seropositive (65.2%) than those eating only commercial dry feed or cooked meat (25.7%). No statistically significant differences were noted in males compared to females and in pure breed dogs compared to crossbreed dogs. The antibodies were usually found in low titres under 60 IU/ml (69.6% of positive results). High titres (120-480 IU/ml) were detected in 2 of 3 dogs with clinical toxoplasmosis. In these dogs IFAT T. gondii specific IgM were detected and a favourable response to antiprotozoal treatment was observed. All the dogs with medium and high titres were given raw meat. Age and the presence of cats did not seem to have any influence on T. gondii seroprevalence. Neospora caninum specific antibodies in low titres ranging from 1:20-1:320 were found in 7 (9.7%) of 72 T. gondii positive seroreagents.