Infrared Drying Characteristics of Long‐Grain Hybrid,Long‐Grain Pureline,and Medium‐Grain Rice Cultivars

The objective for this study was to investigate the effectiveness of scaled‐up infrared (IR) heating followed by tempering steps to dry freshly harvested rough rice. An industrial‐type, pilot‐scale, IR heating system designed to dry rough rice was used in this study. The heating zone of the equipment had catalytic IR emitters that provided heat energy to the sample as it was conveyed on a vibrating belt. The sample comprised freshly harvested rough rice of long‐grain pureline (Cheniere), long‐grain hybrid (6XP 756), and medium‐grain (CL 271) cultivars at initial moisture contents of 23, 23.5, and 24% wb, respectively. Samples at a loading rate of 1.61 kg/m² were heated with IR of radiation intensity 5.55 kW/m² for 30, 50, 90, and 180 s followed by tempering at 60°C for 4 h, at a product‐to‐emitter‐gap size of 450 mm, in one‐ and two‐pass drying operations. Control samples were gently natural air dried in an equilibrium moisture content chamber set at relative humidity of 65% and temperature of 26°C to moisture content of 12.5% wb. The effects of IR treatments followed by tempering on percentage points of moisture removed, head rice yield, energy use, rice color, and pasting characteristics were evaluated. For all cultivars, percentage point moisture removed increased with increase in IR drying duration. For all rice cultivars, one‐pass IR treatments for 180 s resulted in head rice yield significantly lower than that of rice dried with natural air in the controlled‐environment conditions (P < 0.05). Energy required to dry rice increased with increase in drying duration. Viscosity values of all the experimental samples were significantly greater (P value < 0.05) than that of the control samples for all the cultivars, except those treated with IR for 180 s. There was a significant difference (P < 0.05) in the color index (ΔE ) of treated milled samples and the controls. In conclusion, the study provided information crucial to understanding the effects of scaled‐up radiant heating and tempering of rough rice on drying rates and rice quality for long‐grain pureline, long‐grain hybrid, and medium‐grain rice cultivars.     

Effect of Infrared and Conventional Drying Methods on Physicochemical Characteristics of Stored White Rice

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of infrared (IR) drying followed by tempering and natural cooling on the change of physicochemical characteristics of white rice during up to 10 months of storage. The physicochemical characteristics of IR‐dried rice were also compared with those of conventionally dried rice. It took only 58 s to heat the rough rice from room temperature to 60°C with IR, and 2.17 percentage points of moisture was removed. After four months of storage, the increases in yellowness index, water uptake ratio, and volume expansion ratio of the rice dried with IR were 73.8, 63.9, and 55.3% those of rice dried with an ambient air drying method, respectively. IR drying slightly decreased the gelatinization temperature, enthalpy, and viscosities, reduced the changes in microstructure, and maintained cooking characteristics during storage. Therefore, the IR drying process is recommended to maintain the quality of white rice during storage.     

Thin-Layer Models for Intermittent Drying of Rough Rice

Thin-layer drying data was collected for rough rice from 108 treatments. Four thin-layer equations were derived by regression analysis to predict the drying behavior for deep-bed drying of rough rice. The proposed equations consider the effects of drying air temperature, drying air absolute humidity, drying time interval, and tempering time interval. Drying air temperature range was 35–65°C, drying air absolute humidity range was 10–26 g/kg of dry air, drying time interval was 5–15 min, and tempering time interval was 40–120 min. In addition, the variations of moisture content with tempering time intervals and drying time intervals were considered. Within the tempering time interval range of 40–120 min and drying time interval of 5–15 min, a shorter drying time interval and a longer tempering time interval are preferable in a recirculating type rice dryer.     

水稻顺流干燥工艺缓苏过程的研究

系统地分析了水稻顺流干燥工艺中,谷物温度、降水幅度、初始水分对缓苏过程的影响,通过计算机求解扩散模型,揭示出缓苏与提高干燥能力之间的关系。该文求解出的谷物内部传热传质模型的模拟值与实验结果相符。     

Physicochemical Properties of Starch in Extruded Rice Flours

The effects of extruding temperatures and subsequent drying conditions on X‐ray diffraction patterns (XRD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) of long grain (LG) and short grain (SG) rice flours were investigated. The rice flours were extruded in a twin‐screw extruder at 70–120°C and 22% moisture, and either dried at room temperature, transferred to 4°C for 60 hr, or frozen and then dried at room temperature until the moisture was 10–11%. The dried materials were milled without the temperature increasing above 32°C. XRD studies were conducted on pellets made from extruded and milled flours with particle sizes of 149–248 μm; DSC studies were conducted from the same material. DSC studies showed that frozen materials retrograded more than the flours dried at room temperature. The LG and SG samples had two distinct XRD patterns. The LG gradually lost its A pattern at >100°C, while acquiring V patterns at higher temperatures. SG gradually lost its A pattern at 100°C but stayed amorphous at the higher extruding temperatures. DSC analysis showed that retrograded flours did not produce any new XRD 2θ peaks, although a difference in 2θ peak intensities between the LG and SG rice flours was observed. DSC analysis may be very sensitive in detecting changes due to drying conditions, but XRD data showed gradual changes due to processing conditions. The gradual changes in XRD pattern and DSC data suggest that physicochemical properties of the extruded rice flours can be related to functional properties.     

Relationship of Kernel Moisture Content Gradients and Glass Transition Temperatures to Head Rice Yield

The relationship of glass transition temperature T_g and moisture content (MC) gradient of rice kernels to head rice yield (HRY) variation was investigated. Mathematical models describing heat and moisture transfer inside rice kernels during drying were developed and solved using the finite element method. Moisture distributions inside a kernel were simulated and verified using thin-layer drying experiments, and the intra-kernel MC gradients during drying were accordingly determined and analysed. Results showed that in the glassy region, rice did not incur measurable HRY reduction after drying. However, when rice was dried in the rubbery region and then cooled down immediately without being tempered following drying, HRY decreased markedly after MC gradients exceeded certain levels. It was found in this study that the time when the percentage point of moisture removal reached a maximally allowable level before HRY decreased dramatically coincided with the time at which the curve of kernel MC gradients versus drying duration reached its peak. Such a relation was verified with the HRY data of two varieties (Cypress and M202) as measured in this study and cited from literature. The HRY trends for these two varieties were well explained through the behaviour of glass transition and MC gradients of rice.     

Effect of Ultrasonic Treatment of Brown Rice at Different Temperatures on Cooking Properties and Quality

This research studied developing quick cooking brown rice by investigating the effect of ultrasonic treatment at different temperatures on cooking time and quality. The medium grain brown rice was ultrasonically treated in water at temperatures of 25, 40, and 55°C for 30 min and then dried by air at 25°C to its initial moisture content (11.0 ± 0.6%, wb) before cooking. The microstructure of rice kernel surface, chemical composition, and optimal cooking time of treated brown rice were determined. The pasting and thermal properties and chemical structure of flour and starch from treated brown rice were also examined. The results showed that the optimal cooking times were 37, 35, and 33 min after treatment at 25, 40, and 55°C, respectively, compared to the control of 39.6 min. The ultrasonic treatment resulted in a loss in natural morphology of rice bran, allowing water to be absorbed by a rice kernel easily, particularly at high‐temperature treatment. Even through rice flour still maintained an A‐pattern in the pasting properties, the crystallinity significantly increased after treatment at 55°C. Ultrasonic treatment increased the peak, hold, and final viscosities and decreased the onset temperature (T_o) and peak temperature (T_p), significantly. Thus, ultrasonic treatment could be used for reducing cooking time of brown rice.     

Glassy State Transition and Rice Drying: Development of a Brown Rice State Diagram

The effect of moisture content (MC) on the glass transition temperature (T_g) of individual brown rice kernels of Bengal, a medium‐grain cultivar, and Cypress, a long‐grain cultivar, was studied. Three methods were investigated for measuring T_g: differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermomechanical analysis (TMA), and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). Among these methods, TMA was chosen, because it can also measure changes in the thermal volumetric coefficient (β) of the kernel during glass transition. TMA‐measured T_g at similar MC levels for both cultivars were not significantly different and were combined to generate a brown rice state diagram. Individual kernel T_g for both cultivars increased from 22 to 58°C as MC decreased from 27 to 3% wb. Linear and sigmoid models were derived to relate T_g to MC. The linear model was sufficient to describe the property changes in the MC range encountered during rice drying. Mean β values across both cultivars in the rubbery state was 4.62 × 10^‐4/°C and was higher than the mean β value of 0.87 × 10^‐4/°C in the glassy state. A hypothetical rice drying process was mapped onto the combined state diagram generated for Bengal and Cypress.     

高湿稻谷逐步升温干燥工艺试验研究

针对南方双季稻区高湿稻谷,对薄层谷粒的水分迁移过程进行动态跟踪,发现降速干燥过程具有明显的二段性。通过测定深层干燥中气流状态的变化过程,由热质衡算得出深层干燥特性曲线,研究了高湿稻谷深层干燥中的热质运动规律,结合稻谷爆腰率的变化规律,给出了合理的干燥工艺     

Properties of Flours and Starches as Affected by Rough Rice Drying Regime

Flours and starches from rough rice dried using different treatment combinations of air temperature (T) and relative humidity (RH) were studied to better understand the effect of drying regime on rice functionality. Rough rice from cultivars Bengal and Cypress were dried to a moisture content of ≈12% by three drying regimes: low temperature (T 20°C, RH 50%), medium temperature (T 40°C, RH 12%), and high temperature (T 60, RH 17%). Head rice grains were processed into flour and starch and evaluated for pasting characteristics with a Brabender Viscoamylograph, thermal properties with differential scanning calorimetry, starch molecular‐size distribution with high‐performance size‐exclusion chromatography (HPSEC), and amylopectin chain‐length distribution with high‐performance anion‐exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection (HPAEC‐PAD). Lower head rice and starch yields were obtained from the batch dried at 60°C which were accompanied by an increase in total soluble solids and total carbohydrates in the pooled alkaline supernatant and wash water used in extracting the starch. Drying regime caused no apparent changes on starch molecular‐size distribution and amylopectin chain‐length distribution. Starch fine structure differences were due to cultivar. The pasting properties of flour were affected by the drying treatments while those of starch were not, suggesting that the grain components removed in the isolation of starch by alkaline‐steeping were important to the observed drying‐related changes in rice functionality.     

基于玻璃化转变的稻谷爆腰产生机理分析

稻谷爆腰是造成碎米的主要原因之一,为此,人们一直在探讨产生稻谷爆腰的机理.介绍了一种新的稻谷爆腰机理--基于玻璃化转变的稻谷爆腰机理.根据该机理分析了稻谷干燥和缓苏过程中爆腰的产生原因.基于玻璃化转变的稻谷爆腰机理,干燥过程中,当稻谷颗粒由外表向里形成玻璃态时,颗粒内部形成玻璃态和橡胶态两个部分.由于玻璃态和橡胶态的弹性模量和膨胀系数有很大的差别,因此在一定水分梯度条件下,银纹(微裂纹)从两者交界处产生,并可能进一步扩展成爆腰.稻谷缓苏过程中,颗粒内部如果存在橡胶态区,则其不同含水率部分就会在不同水分梯度下分别进入玻璃态,如果此时水分梯度足够,就会引起各部分不均匀收缩和各不相同的应力、应变,这样使玻璃态层产生大量银纹,银纹持续生长即产生爆腰.最后,介绍了两种控制稻谷爆腰的干燥工艺--变温干燥工艺和高温干燥工艺.     

热风干燥联合真空降温缓苏提升黄秋葵干制品品质

为提升黄秋葵热风干燥产品品质,试验将真空降温缓苏技术应用于黄秋葵热风干燥过程中。研究了不同缓苏时长下黄秋葵干燥特性和品质指标的变化规律;利用Weibull分布函数分析缓苏处理对黄秋葵热风干燥过程中水分扩散机制的影响;采用一元非线性回归分析构建适用于黄秋葵真空降温缓苏-热风联合干燥过程中干燥特性和品质指标随缓苏时长变化的学数模型;以总干燥耗时、总干燥能耗、复水比、色相角以及总营养物质保存率为指标,对不同缓苏时长下的黄秋葵热风干燥进行加权综合评价。结果表明：缓苏处理能够提升黄秋葵热风干燥速率,且随着缓苏时长的延长其促进作用会增强;Weibull分布函数能够准确描述（R2>0.99且离差平方和χ2处于10-4数量级）黄秋葵真空降温缓苏-热风联合干燥过程中水分比随干燥时间的变化规律;常用函数一元非线性回归分析能够构建出黄秋葵真空降温缓苏-热风联合干燥过程中各干燥特性和品质指标随缓苏时长的变化规律的动力学模型;联合干燥过程中,缓苏60 min处理的综合评分值最高为0.55,在干燥温度和风速分别为60℃、1.5 m/s条件下,该缓苏时长较适合应用于黄秋葵热风干燥。研究表明,真空降温缓苏处理能够提升黄秋葵热风干燥的干燥速率和干燥品质,该文可为真空降温缓苏技术在高品质黄秋葵干制品工业生产上的应用提供理论依据。     

Physicochemical Properties of Rice Dried in a Single Pass Using High Temperatures

This study evaluated the physicochemical properties of high‐temperature, single‐pass dried rough rice. Pureline cultivars Wells (long grain) and Jupiter (medium grain) and hybrid cultivar CL XL729 (long grain), at initial moisture contents of 17.9–18.1% were dried in a single pass to approximately 12.5% moisture content with drying air temperatures of 60, 70, and 80°C and relative humidities of 13–83%. Immediately after drying, the samples were tempered for 1 h at the drying air temperatures in sealed plastic bags. Color, degree of milling, pasting viscosity, and thermal properties of the milled rice were evaluated. Results showed that color, degree of milling, and thermal properties were not affected by drying treatments. However, peak and final viscosities increased with increasing drying air temperatures in all three cultivars.     

Relating Rice Milling Quality Changes During Adsorption to Individual Kernel Moisture Content Distribution

Several varieties of rough rice that were either stored for an extended period of time or freshly harvested were conditioned to initial moisture contents ranging from 10 to 17%. After the individual kernel moisture content distributions were measured, the samples were soaked in water at temperatures ranging from 10 to 40°C. The samples were then dried and milled. The bulk critical moisture content, at which head rice yield began to decline due to moisture adsorption, ranged from 12.5 to 14.9%, depending on the variety, harvest moisture content, and storage conditions. The kernel critical moisture content, determined from each sample from the cumulative kernel moisture content frequency distribution, increased with increasing sample initial moisture content.     

Effect of Broken Corn Levels on Water Absorption and Steepwater Characteristics

Broken corn created by grounding sound corn kernels was added back at levels of 0, 4, 8, 12, or 16%, by weight, to whole kernels of three corresponding hybrids: FR27 × FRMo17 (a soft endosperm corn), FR618 × FR600 (amedium‐hard endosperm corn), and FR618 × LH123 (a hard endosperm corn). The samples had been dried from 28% moisture content to 15% moisture content either by using ambient air at ≈25°C or at 110°C. Samples were steeped for 36 hr at 52°C in 0.15% sulfur dioxide and 0.5% lactic acid steeping solution. The steepwater characteristics, such as water absorption, solids and protein content in the steepwater, and steepwater pH, were measured by periodic sampling and analyzed. Broken corn level has a significant effect on the amount of solids released during steeping and steepwater protein content for all samples. Both steepwater solids and protein content increased linearly as broken corn content increased. Corn drying temperature, kernel hardness, and interactions between drying temperature and kernel hardness has a significant effect on steepwater solids and protein content and steepwater pH in both broken and unbroken corn. Corn dried at low temperature released more soluble solids and protein into the steepwater than corn dried at high temperature. Soft endosperm and medium‐hard endosperm corn released more soluble solids and protein into the steepwater than hard endosperm corn. Soft endosperm corn resulted in a higher steepwater pH than medium‐hard and hard endosperm corn. No significant effect of broken corn content on final moisture content of steeped corn and steepwater pH was observed.     

Effects of Postharvest Processing on Texture Profile Analysis of Cooked Rice

The effects of drying conditions, final moisture content, and degree of milling on the texture of cooked rice varieties, as measured by texture profile analysis, were investigated. Instrumentally measured textural properties were not significantly (α = 0.05) affected by drying conditions, with the exception of cohesiveness. Cohesiveness was lower in rice dried at lower temperatures (18°C or ambient) than in that dried at the higher commercial temperatures. Final moisture content and degree of milling significantly (α = 0.05) affected textural property values for adhesiveness, cohesiveness, hardness, and springiness; their effects were interdependent. The effects of deep milling were more pronounced in the rice dried to 15% moisture than that dried to 12%. In general, textural property values for hardness were higher and those for cohesiveness, adhesiveness, and springiness were lower in regular-milled rice dried to 15% moisture than in that dried to 12%. In contrast, hardness values were lower and cohesiveness, adhesiveness, and springiness values were higher in deep-milled rice dried to 15% moisture than in that dried to 12% moisture. Deep milling resulted in rice with lower hardness values and higher cohesiveness, adhesiveness, and springiness values.     

Effects of Postharvest Elevated‐Temperature Exposure on Rice Quality and Functionality

Rapid drying with high‐temperature air has gained interest in the rice industry, but the effects of elevated‐temperature exposure on physicochemical properties of rice are of concern. This study investigated the effects of exposing rough rice to elevated temperatures for various durations without removing moisture. Physicochemical property response was evaluated in terms of head rice yield (HRY), germination rate (GR), milled‐rice yellowing, pasting properties, and gelatinization temperatures. Two long‐grain cultivars (pure‐line Wells and hybrid CL XL729) at initial moisture contents (IMCs) of 17.9 and 18.6%, respectively, and dried moisture content (DMC) of 12.5%, were hermetically sealed and exposed to 40, 60, and 80°C for various durations. Exposure to 80°C of IMC samples of Wells and CL XL729 resulted in a significant (2.3–2.5 percentage point) reduction in the HRYs. A 2 hr exposure of both cultivars at IMC level to 60°C completely inhibited GR, and exposure to 80°C of the cultivars at both moisture content (MC) levels immediately inhibited GR. Exposure to 80°C for almost all durations and 60°C for durations over 4 hr produced significant yellowing in both cultivars at IMC. Significant yellowing in both cultivars at DMC was also observed during a 28 day storage following 80°C exposure. In general, peak viscosities of both cultivars at IMC increased only after extended exposure to 40 and 60°C, but peak viscosities of the cultivars exposed to 80°C increased sharply and immediately upon exposure. No significant differences were observed in gelatinization temperatures of either cultivar at either MC level from elevated‐temperature exposure. Results from this study suggest that extreme‐temperature exposure of rough rice affects HRY, GRs, yellowing, and pasting properties of rice, but the extent of impact is MC dependent.     

中国稻谷干燥现状和稻谷干燥设备的开发

介绍了我国稻谷干燥技术和干燥设备的现状,重点探讨了稻谷干燥的特点,如低温、大风量和干燥后必须缓苏等。对稻谷干燥中的爆腰问题作了深入的分析,对影响稻谷品质的主要因素如干燥速率、缓苏时间和爆腰率的测定时间和方法进行了讨论。对进一步发展我国的稻谷干燥技术提出了建议。     

Influence of Storing Rough Rice with High Moisture Content on Subsequent Drying Characteristics and Milling Quality

The objective of this research was to determine the influence on drying characteristics and resultant milling quality of storing high moisture content (MC) rough rice (Oryza sativa L. ‘Bengal’ and ‘Cypress’) under various conditions and durations before drying. Immediately after harvest, drying experiments were performed with samples of both cultivars using two drying air conditions: 52°C with 25% rh and 60°C with 17% rh. Rough rice from each cultivar also was stored for 27 and 76 days at ‐9 or 4°C. After storage, all samples were dried under the same two drying air conditions as at harvest. Head rice yields (HRY) were determined for all dried samples. There were no significant differences between the drying rates or resultant HRY of Bengal or Cypress rice samples stored for either 27 or 76 days at both storage temperatures and then dried compared with the HRY of samples dried immediately after harvest. This research shows that it may be possible to store high MC rice for extended periods of time without detrimental effects on HRY.