Factors Controlling Gas Cell Failure in Bread Dough

Stress relaxation in the wall of a gas bubble, as measured by the alveograph, was used to study surface tension at the gas-dough interface of doughs from flours producing differing bread crumb grains. The surface tensions in the various wheat flour doughs were not different. Dough rheological properties, as measured by both dynamic oscillatory rheometry and lubricated uniaxial compression, were not different for doughs made from wheat flours that gave breads with different crumb grains. However, when the effect of starch granule size on gas cell wall stability was tested, the presence of a greater proportion of large starch granules in wheat flour dough was sufficient to result in gas cell coalescence and open crumb grain in the final baked product. This suggests that starch granule size is at least one of the factors that affects the crumb grain of bread.     

Laboratory Milling Method for Whole Grain Soft Wheat Flour Evaluation

Whole grain wheat products are a growing portion of the foods marketed in North America, yet few standard methods exist to evaluate whole grain wheat flour. This study evaluated two flour milling systems to produce whole grain soft wheat flour for a wire‐cut cookie, a standard soft wheat product. A short‐flow experimental milling system combined with bran grinding in a Quadro Comil produced a whole grain soft wheat flour that made larger diameter wire‐cut cookies than whole grain flour from a long‐flow experimental milling system. Average cookie diameter of samples milled on the short‐flow mill was greater than samples milled on the long‐flow system by 1 cm/two cookies (standard error 0.09 cm). The long‐flow milling system resulted in more starch damage in the flour milling than did the short‐flow system. The short‐flow milling system produced flours that were useful for discriminating among wheat cultivars and is an accessible tool for evaluating whole grain soft wheat quality.     

Production of Starch with Very Low Protein Content from Soft and Hard Wheat Flours by Jet Milling and Air Classification

Jet milling is a fluid energy impact‐milling technique generally used for the ultrafine reduction of higher value materials. The efficiency of jet milling combined with air classification appears very efficient to separate starch from other wheat flour aggregate components and to produce wheat starch with very low residual protein content. Indeed, residual protein content of the starch‐rich fraction can be reduced to <2% db with a series of successive grinding and air classification operations. Lipid and pentosan contents were also reduced in the starch‐rich fraction. Nevertheless, jet milling cannot eliminate grinding differences observed between different types of wheat. Wheat hardness continues to have an effect on milling and classification yields and on the composition of air classification fractions. To obtain starch‐rich fraction with only 2% protein content, hard wheat flour required a series of at least five grinding steps, whereas only three steps are necessary for soft wheat flour. Under these conditions, hard wheat flours give 24% mass yield with 12% starch damage compared with 39% yield and a low starch damage content (6.4%) for soft wheat flour. These results highlight new prospects for the development of cereal flours, especially soft wheat flours.     

Effects of Growing Environment on Properties of Starch from Five Australian Wheat Varieties

The effects of growing conditions on properties of starch from wheat grain were examined. Growing conditions affected starch and amylose content, granule size distribution, protein associated with starch granules, and starch swelling power in grains from five commercial Australian milling wheat varieties grown at multiple locations in two years in crop production systems. Soil nitrogen and meteorological conditions were major contributors to variability in grain yield and grain protein and starch contents. The volume proportion of B‐granules was positively affected by warmer temperatures before flowering but negatively correlated with high temperatures during grain filling. Genotype was the main source of variability in the proportion of B‐granules and granule dimensions, starch‐granule proteins, and starch swelling power, although there were also significant contributions to variability from the growing conditions. Seasonal effects and interactions between genotype and season and location were significant sources of variability in amylose content, proportion of short chains of amylopectin, and flour swelling power. The positive relationships between starch content and the number of clear days and atmospheric temperatures before flowering indicate that conditions that enhance accumulation of assimilates before anthesis influence the deposition of reserves in developing grain.     

Insights into Sorghum Starch Biosynthesis from Structure Changes Induced by Different Growth Temperatures

The effects of high growth temperature on sorghum starch structures were examined from the grains of three inbred lines (BTx623, IS8525, and Karper669), and the possible mechanism by which the growth of amylopectin molecules is terminated was discussed. Sorghum plants were grown at high temperature (38/21°C day/night) and control temperature (32/22°C day/night) from sowing to maturity. The grains sampled from plants grown at high temperature had significantly lower starch weights per grain (except BTx623) and smaller starch granule sizes than those grown at control temperature. Nevertheless, the amylose contents were similar. BTx623 and IS8525 samples grown at high temperature also had higher ratios of long to short amylopectin branches and lower degree of branching than their control counterparts. These results suggested that the activities of starch biosynthetic enzymes were evidently affected by elevated growth temperature. However, the weight‐average molecular weight and the z‐average radius of gyration of sorghum starch molecules were not significantly affected by the growth temperatures, suggesting that the effects of growth temperature on starch yield, starch granule size, and the branching structure of amylopectin molecules did not influence the events that stopped the overall growth of amylopectin molecules. This observation was consistent with the cessation of whole‐molecule growth being through increasing hindrance to enzyme access as the size of the starch molecule increases, controlled largely by the molecular density of the outermost part of an amylopectin molecule.     

Fine Structures of Starches from Long‐Grain Rice Cultivars with Different Functionality

The structural features of rice starch that may contribute to differences in the functionality of three long‐grain rice cultivars were studied. Dried rough rice samples of cultivars Cypress, Drew, and Wells were analyzed for milling quality, grain physical attributes, and starch structures and physicochemical properties. Drew was lower in head rice yield and translucency and higher in percentage of chalky grains compared with Cypress and Wells. Apparent amylose content (21.3–23.1%), crude protein (8.3–8.6%), and crude fat (0.48–0.64%) of milled rice flours were comparable, but pasting properties of rice flours as measured by viscoamylography, as well as starch iodine affinity and thermal properties determined by differential scanning calorimetry were different for the three cultivars. Drew had higher peak, hot paste, and breakdown viscosities, and gelatinization temperature and enthalpy. Molecular size distribution of starch fractions determined by high‐performance size‐exclusion chromatography showed that the three samples were similar in amylose content (AM) (20.0–21.8%) but differed in amylopectin (AP) (64.7–68.3%) and intermediate material (IM) (10.9–13.5%). Drew had highest AP and lowest IM contents, whereas Cypress had the lowest AP and highest IM contents. High‐performance anion‐exchange chromatography of isoamylase‐debranched starch indicated that the AP of Drew was lower in A and B1 chains but higher in B2, B3, and longer chains.     

Structural Changes of Starch Molecules in Barley Grains During Germination

The germination of barley grains is an important step in malt production for beer brewing. This study examines the changes in starch molecular structure in barley grains under optimal conditions for sprouting. Two barley varieties were tested: Schooner and Grimmett, which are low and moderate dormancy grains, with >90 and <5% of grains germinating within two days in sprouting conditions, respectively. The barley grains were germinated in humid conditions after being soaked in excess water for 24 h. The grain weight and starch content of Schooner decreased significantly (P < 0.05) with germination time, whereas those of Grimmett showed no significant changes (P > 0.05). The starch chain‐length distributions, analyzed from enzymatically debranched starch molecules with size‐exclusion chromatography, indicated that the shorter amylopectin branches of Schooner were degraded at a faster rate than its longer amylopectin branches, which was also confirmed by the decreasing degree of branching with germination time. The changes in starch molecular structure of Grimmett grains were less apparent. The results of this study showed that barley grains containing shorter starch chains can produce sugars more quickly, which indicates that starch structure can serve as one of the specifications when selecting barley grains for brewing.     

调质大米半干法磨粉制备鲜米粉及其品质测定

为考察半干法磨粉对鲜米粉品质的影响,该研究选用旋风磨和布勒磨对调质后含水率为28%和30%的大米进行磨粉,分析大米粉的白度、凝胶特性及糊化特性,对加工鲜米粉的质构特性、蒸煮特性和感官品质进行了分析。结果显示:调质大米可以减小磨粉仪器机械力和热能对大米粉品质的破坏,其中调质大米经布勒磨粉碎后的白度显著高于湿磨粉白度(P0.05);旋风磨含水率为30%调质粉的凝胶硬度最大为3.45 N/cm2,与湿磨粉的无显著差异(P0.05);2种调质粉相比于湿磨粉其崩解值较小,其中布勒磨含水率为30%调质粉回生程度较低,与湿磨粉无显著差异(P0.05)。对于鲜米粉的品质,筛选得到的旋风磨含水率为30%鲜米粉的硬度为35.10 N/cm2,弹性为0.97,较湿磨米粉更柔软弹滑,感官评价总分和蒸煮特性与湿磨米粉无显著差异。以上结果表明,含水率为30%的大米经旋风磨粉碎后能够制得与湿法磨浆相媲美的鲜米粉,可为解决湿磨法废水量大、产品得率低等问题提供参考。     

Quality of Flours from Waxy and Nonwaxy Barley for Production of Baked Products

One nonwaxy (covered) and two waxy (hull-less) barleys, whole grain and commercially abraded, were milled to break flour, reduction flour, and the bran fraction with a roller mill under optimized conditions. The flour yield range was 55.3–61.8% in whole grain and increased by 9–11% by abrasion before milling. Break flours contained the highest starch content (≤85.8%) independent of type of barley and abrasion level. Reduction flours contained less starch, but more protein, ash, free lipids, and total β-glucans than break flours. The bran fraction contained the highest content of ash, free lipids, protein, and total β-glucans but the lowest content of starch. Break flours milled from whole grain contained 82–91% particles <106 μm, and reduction flours contained ≈80% particles <106 μm. Abrasion significantly increased the amount of particles <38 μm in break and reduction flours in both types of barley. Viscosity of hot paste prepared with barley flour or bran at 8% concentration was strongly affected by barley type and abrasion level. In cv. Waxbar, the viscosity in bran fractions increased from 428 to 1,770 BU, and in break flours viscosity increased from 408 to 725 BU due to abrasion. Sugar snap cookies made from nonwaxy barley had larger diameter than cookies prepared from waxy barley. Cookies made from break flours were larger than those made from reduction flours, independent of type of barley. Quick bread baked from nonwaxy barley had a loaf volume similar to that of wheat bread, whereas waxy barley bread had a smaller loaf volume. Replacement of 20% of wheat flour by both waxy and nonwaxy barley flour or bran did not significantly affect the loaf volume but did decrease the hardness of quick bread crumb.     

Starch Damage and Pasting Properties of Rice Flours Produced by Dry Jet Grinding

Milling method and particle size affect some properties of rice flour. To prepare ultra‐fine rice flour of <30 μm, hammer and dry jet grinding methods were examined and the effect of particle size on starch damage and pasting properties of the flour were elucidated. A jet mill could make finer flour (<10 μm mean size) with a narrower particle size distribution than a hammer mill could. Starch damage increased dramatically at a mean size of <10 μm. Particles of a similar size (<60 μm) had different levels of starch damage between mills. Not only the particle size, but also the milling method affected the level of damaged starch. Flour samples of ≥45 μm mean size had similar viscosity curves, but samples of <20 μm had different curves. Peak viscosity and final viscosity decreased sharply at <10 μm. Setback viscosity for particles of 3 μm from both brown rice and white rice were higher than the peak viscosity. Stability to heat and shearing stress were decreased for <20 μm flours as the breakdown viscosities decreased. Starch damage and pasting properties of flour ground from the nonwaxy japonica cultivar Koshihikari changed dramatically at a mean size of <10 μm.     

Properties and Structures of Flours and Starches from Whole,Broken, and Yellowed Rice Kernels in a Model Study

The objective of this study was to compare the structure and properties of flours and starches from whole, broken, and yellowed rice kernels that were broken or discolored in the laboratory. Physicochemical properties including pasting, gelling, thermal properties, and X‐ray diffraction patterns were determined. Structure was elucidated using high‐performance size‐exclusion chromatography (HPSEC) and high‐performance anion‐exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection (HPAEC‐PAD). The yellowed rice kernels contained a slightly higher protein content and produced a significantly lower starch yield than did the whole or broken rice kernels. Flour from the yellowed rice kernels had a significantly higher pasting temperature, higher Brabender viscosities, increased damaged starch content, reduced amylose content, and increased gelatinization temperature and enthalpy compared with flours from the whole or the broken rice kernels. However, all starches showed similar pasting, gelling, thermal properties, and X‐ray diffraction patterns, and no structural differences could be detected among different starches by HPSEC and HPAEC‐PAD. α‐Amylase may be responsible for the decreased amylopectin fraction, decreased apparent amylose content, and increased amounts of low molecular weight saccharides in the yellowed rice flour. The increased amount of reducing sugars from starch hydrolysis promoted the interaction between starch and protein. The alkaline‐soluble fraction during starch isolation is presumed to contribute to the difference in pasting, gelling, and thermal properties among whole, broken, and yellowed rice flours.     

Physicochemical,Structural, and Proteomic Analysis of Starch Granules from Maize Landraces of Northwest Mexico

The variability in grain and starch characteristics and their relationship with the accumulation of starch granule associated proteins were investigated in five maize landraces of Northwest Mexico (Blando de Sonora, Chapalote, Elotero de Sinaloa, Reventador, and Tabloncillo). Significant differences were observed in grain hardness related traits, starch physicochemical properties, and structural properties. Blando de Sonora showed very soft grains, whereas the hardest grains were observed for Chapalote and Reventador. Starch granules isolated from landraces with hard grains contained more amylose and showed polygonal shapes, lower crystallinity and enthalpy of gelatinization, and greater retrogradation and proportion of long amylopectin chains. Proteomic analysis identified the enzymes granule‐bound starch synthase I (GBSSI), starch synthase I and IIa, starch branching enzyme IIb, sucrose synthase 1, and pyruvate phosphate dikinase 2 as granule‐associated proteins. The abundance of GBSSI correlated significantly with amylose content, consistent with the positive correlation observed between amylose and grain hardness. These results showed that the variability in the characteristics evaluated was mainly related to changes in the proportion of amylose in the starch granules, which were associated with differences in the expression of GBSSI. This information may be useful to define strategies for the exploitation and conservation of the landraces.     

气流粉碎对玉米淀粉结构及理化性质的影响

为研究气流粉碎对玉米淀粉结构及理化性质的影响,该文以普通玉米淀粉为原料,通过流化床气流粉碎处理,采用扫描电子显微镜、偏光显微镜、粒度分析仪、X-射线衍射仪、红外光谱仪、差示扫描量热仪、快速黏度分析仪等分析手段研究经微细化处理前后玉米淀粉颗粒形貌、晶体结构、热力学特性、糊化特性、溶解度和膨胀度、冻融稳定性、持水能力等结构及性质的变化。结果表明,微细化处理后,淀粉颗粒形变的不规则,粒径明显减小,中位径(D50)由14.37μm减小到5.25μm,偏光十字减少,相对结晶度由33.43%降低至15.46%,淀粉颗粒结晶结构被破坏,由多晶态向无定形态转变,粉碎过程淀粉无新的基团产生;热焓值、糊化温度均降低,热糊稳定性好;溶解度、膨胀度均升高,持水能力增加,冻融稳定性好,产生较好的热糊稳定性和冷糊力学稳定性,该研究为玉米淀粉的深度加工与应用提供了理论依据及技术支撑。     

Effect of Steeping Treatment on Pasting and Thermal Properties of Sorghum Starches

Chemical treatments in wet milling could improve the physico‐chemical properties of starch isolated from high‐tannin sorghums. Sorghums Chirimaugute (medium‐tannin), DC‐75 (high‐tannin), and SV2 (tannin‐free) were steeped in water, dilute HCl (0.9%, v/v), formaldehyde (0.05%, v/v), and NaOH (0.3%, w/v) solutions before wet milling and starch separation. Pasting, textural, and thermal properties of starch were determined. Steeping in NaOH resulted in starches with higher peak viscosity (PV), cool paste viscosity (CPV), and setback than when water, HCl, and formaldehyde were used. The time to PV (P_time) and PV temperature (P_temp) were markedly reduced by treatment with NaOH. NaOH could have caused a degree of pregelatinization. HCl treatment gave starches with higher P_temp and P _time, presumably due to delayed granule swelling. Gel hardness was largely determined by the starch amylase content. The low hardness of DC‐75 starch gels was slightly improved in NaOH‐treated grains. Gelatinization temperatures of sorghum starches were generally low, regardless of steeping treatment. Starch from NaOH‐treated grain generally had slightly higher gelatinization temperatures than when water, HCl, or HCHO was used. Chemical treatments during steeping of sorghum grains greatly affected starch properties. Dilute alkali steeping during wet milling could be used to improve properties of starch isolated from tannin‐containing sorghums.     

Characteristics of pregelatinized ae mutant rice flours prepared by boiling after preroasting

As ae mutant rice, such as EM10, lacks the starch branching enzyme IIb, its amylopectin contains more long-chain glucans than that of ordinary Indica and Japonica rice grains. Although boiled grains of ae rice cultivars are too hard and nonsticky for table rice, they are promising in terms of biofunctionality, such as prevention of diabetes. The present paper investigates the characterization of a novel group of four ae mutant rice cultivars (EM72, EM145, EM174, and EM189). They were subjected to the evaluation for their main chemical components, physical properties, and enzyme activities at different grain conditions (raw milled rice, roasted rice, boiled rice, and rice boiled after preroasting). These mutant rice grains are characterized by high apparent amylose, high protein and high glucose contents, high pasting temperature, high α-amylase activities, high resistant starch, and low degree of gelatinization. A novel method was developed to maintain the high resistant starch contents of gelatinized rice grains. Rice boild after preroasting showed a higher ratio of resistant starch and a lower amount of glucose than ordinary boiled rice. It became possible to produce high-quality and biofunctional pregelatinized rice flours by boiling with frozen fruits, such as tomatoes, after rice grains had been preroasted. These ae mutants were found to be suitable materials for rice/fruit or rice/vegetable products to serve as palatable, low-glucose, and high resistant starch rice products.     

Sorghum Bran as a Potential Source of Kafirin

Sorghum bran, a coproduct of sorghum dry milling, could be a source of protein for industrial applications. Condensed tannin‐free red and white sorghum samples were decorticated by abrasion until ≈10 or 25% grain by weight was removed. Kafirin was then extracted from the milling fractions using an aqueous ethanol based solvent system. The brans were darker and considerably higher in protein and fat compared with the whole grain flours and decorticated grain flours, with the 25% bran having higher protein than the 10% bran. This is due to increased contamination of the bran with protein‐dense, corneous endosperm. The protein extracted from all the milling fractions, including the brans, was pure kafirin. However, the yield of kafirin from the brans (15.9–26.7% of total protein present) was somewhat lower than that from whole grain and decorticated grain flours (45.0–57.9% of total protein present), due to the fact that kafirin is located solely in the endosperm. Also, the kafirin from bran was more contaminated with fat, polyphenols, and other substances, and more highly colored, particularly the kafirin from red sorghum. Thus, sorghum bran could be used as a source of kafirin but further purification steps may be necessary.     

Histological structures of cooked rice grain

Raw and cooked whole grain sections of milled, medium grain California rice were compared for gross histological and morphological features using fluorescence and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Cooked and raw grains were compared and the differences were assessed by autofluorescence of the cell walls and correlating fluorescence to SEM images. Milled, raw grains contain fine cracks throughout the endosperm. Cooked grains have wider, more defined cracks, suggesting that they serve as channels for water migration into the grain during cooking. Water penetrates unequally into the grain during cooking: low water penetration produces dense regions with minimal starch gelatinization, and high water penetration produces large voided areas. The voids occur in the transverse orientation of the grain and are the main of cause grain expansion during cooking.     

In vitro digestion characteristics of unprocessed and processed whole grains and their components

Chemical composition and in vitro digestion properties of select whole grains, before and after processing, and their components were measured. Substrates included barley, corn, oat, rice, and wheat. In addition to whole grain flours, processed substrates also were tested as were corn bran, oat bran, wheat bran, and wheat germ. Processing of most substrates resulted in higher dry matter and digestible starch and lower resistant starch concentrations. Dietary fiber fractions varied among substrates with processing. Digestion profiles for most substrates correlated well with their chemical composition. Corn bran and rice substrates were the least fermentable. Extrusion rendered barley, corn, and wheat more hydrolytically digestible and barley and oat more fermentatively digestible. Except for corn bran, all components had greater or equal fermentability compared with their native whole grains. Understanding digestion characteristics of whole grains and their components will allow for more accurate utilization of these ingredients in food systems.     

Effects of Waterlogging Around Flowering Stage on the Grain Yield and Eating Properties of Fresh Waxy Maize

The effects of waterlogging around flowering stage on the grain yield and eating quality of fresh waxy maize were studied using Suyunuo5 and Yunuo7 as materials in 2014 and 2015. Waterlogging around flowering stage decreased the fresh weight, volume, and number of grains, which led to the loss of fresh grain yield. Waterlogging before pollination reduced grain moisture content and increased grain dry weight. Waterlogging increased starch contents and decreased protein contents, especially after pollination; decreased albumin and glutenin contents; and did not affect globulin content. Zein content was decreased and increased, respectively, by waterlogging before and after pollination. The responses of starch granule size and iodine‐binding capacity to waterlogging were dependent on planting year, variety, and waterlogging stage. Pasting and gelatinization temperatures were only slightly affected by waterlogging. Waterlogging increased peak viscosity at both stages in Suyunuo5, but this parameter decreased and increased, respectively, before and after pollination in Yunuo7. Waterlogging did not affect gelatinization enthalpy but increased retrogradation enthalpy and percentage. In conclusion, waterlogging around flowering stage suppressed grain yield and shortened grain filling duration. Eating quality (viscosity and retrogradation) was also altered by waterlogging because grain proximate content and starch granule structure were changed.     

Effects of Wheat Starch Granule Size Distribution on Qualities of Chinese Steamed Bread and Raw White Noodles

Starch is a crucial component determining the processing quality of wheat‐based products such as Chinese steamed bread (CSB) and raw white noodles (RWN). Flour from wheat cultivar Zhongmai 175 was used for fractionation into starch, gluten, and water solubles by hand washing. The starch fraction was successfully separated into large (>10 μm diameter) and small starch granules (<10 μm diameter) by repeated sedimentation. Flour fractions were reconstituted to original levels in the flour by using constant gluten and water solubles and varying the weight ratio of large and small starch granules. As the proportion of small granules increased in the reconstituted flours, farinograph water absorption increased, and amylose content, pasting peak viscosity, trough, and final viscosity decreased. Starch granule size distribution significantly affected processing quality of CSB and RWN. Superior crumb structure score (12.0) was observed in CSB made from reconstituted flour with 35% small starch granules. CSB made from reconstituted flours with 30 and 35% small starch granules exhibited the highest total scores, with values of 85.4 and 83.3, respectively. Significant improvements in color, viscoelasticity, and smoothness of RWN were obtained with an increase in small starch granule content, and reconstituted flours with 30–40% small starch granules produced RWN with moderate firmness.