Hepatic CT attenuation differs in three species of freshwater turtles and hepatic Hounsfield units increase with folliculogenesis in wild Blanding's turtles (Emydoidea blandingii)

Freshwater turtle species are suffering from anthropocentric‐caused population declines, making preservation of professionally managed populations increasingly important. Turtles under professional care have an increased risk to develop hepatic lipidosis, potentially resulting in early death. Computed tomography can provide an antemortem screening for increased fatty liver composition. A goal of this prospective analytical cross‐sectional study was to assess the hepatic attenuation measured as Hounsfield units (HU) in a wild population of a freshwater turtle species, and then compare hepatic HU to freshwater turtles under professional care. Ninety‐five wild Blanding's turtles (BT; Emydoidea blandingii) as well as 10 Vietnamese Pond turtles (VPT; Mauremys annamensis) and six Northern Snake‐Necked turtles (NSNT; Chelodina oblonga) under professional care underwent CT with quantification of hepatic HU. Hepatic HU were correlated to serum chemistry findings and the presence of follicles was recorded in BT. The mean (±SD) hepatic attenuation for 95 wild BT was 97.5 HU ±9.6. There were significant differences in hepatic attenuation among VPT, NSNT, and BT, with median HU values (range) of 5.39 HU (–6.45 to 61.50), 71.74 HU (59.44‐94.49), and 95.43 HU (74.41‐124.56), respectively. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) values had a weak negative correlation to HU with a coefficient of –0.85 (P < .001). The hepatic attenuation was significantly higher for individuals undergoing folliculogenesis (P = .007). The decreased HU values were significantly negatively correlated with AST values. Findings supported the use of CT as an aid for guiding future management practices in freshwater turtles.     

Bartonella Seroepidemiology in Dogs from North America, 2008–2014

Background

Improved understanding of Bartonella species seroepidemiology in dogs may aid clinical decision making and enhance current understanding of naturally occurring arthropod vector transmission of this pathogen.

Objectives

To identify demographic groups in which Bartonella exposure may be more likely, describe spatiotemporal variations in Bartonella seroreactivity, and examine co‐exposures to other canine vector‐borne diseases (CVBD).

Animals

A total of 15,451 serology specimens from dogs in North America were submitted to the North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine Vector Borne Disease Diagnostic Laboratory between January 1, 2008, and December 31, 2014.

Methods

Bartonella henselae, Bartonella koehlerae, and Bartonella vinsonii subspecies berkhoffii indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) serology results, as well as results from a commercial assay kit screening for Dirofilaria immitis antigen and Ehrlichia species, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and Borrelia burgdorferi antibodies, and Ehrlichia canis, Babesia canis, Babesia gibsoni, and Rickettsia species IFA results were reviewed retrospectively.

Results

Overall, 3.26% of dogs were Bartonella spp. seroreactive; B. henselae (2.13%) and B. koehlerae (2.39%) were detected more frequently than B. vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii (1.42%, P < 0.0001). Intact males had higher seroreactivity (5.04%) than neutered males (2.87%, P < 0.0001) or intact or spayed females (3.22%, P = 0.0003). Mixed breed dogs had higher seroreactivity (4.45%) than purebred dogs (3.02%, P = 0.0002). There was no trend in seasonal seroreactivity; geographic patterns supported broad distribution of exposure, and co‐exposure with other CVBD was common.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

Bartonella spp. exposure was documented throughout North America and at any time of year. Male intact dogs, mixed breed dogs, and dogs exposed to other CVBD have higher seroreactivity to multiple Bartonella species.     

Subpalpebral lavage placement for remote topical administration of ocular medications in 12 dogs: A retrospective review and assessment of owner perception

Objective

The aim of this study was to describe the placement of subpalpebral lavage (SPL) systems in 12 dogs (15 eyes) intolerant of topical ocular medications to assess the suitability, complications encountered and owner perception of use.

Animals Studied

Retrospective review of dogs that underwent SPL placement for treatment of ocular disease at the Ophthalmology Department, University of Bristol Small Animal Hospital between 2017 and 2021.

Procedure(s)

Data recorded included signalment, history, diagnosis, treatment, reason for SPL placement, uni- or bilateral placement, duration of placement, complications, and outcome. Owner perception was assessed using an online questionnaire. Statistical analysis included McNemar and Wilcoxon signed-ranks tests.

Results

Twelve dogs (15 eyes) underwent SPL placement. Eleven owners completed the online questionnaire. Corneal ulceration was the most common disease requiring SPL placement (n = 13/15 eyes, 86.7%). Most cases received multimodal topical therapy (n = 9/15 eyes, 60.0%) via SPL. Owners administered medication 6.63 times daily via SPL (range 1–16 applications/day). All dogs requiring ongoing topical medication (n = 8/12, 66.7%) were trained to accept direct administration during SPL treatment. Statistically significant improvements in medication compliance, ease of application, and reduced perceived risk of iatrogenic ocular injury were reported by owners (p-value = .001, .004, and .031 respectively). Minor complications were infrequently reported but an excellent outcome was achieved for all eyes.

Conclusion

Subpalpebral lavage placement provides a practical and safe solution for the provision of frequent multimodal ocular medication when treating patients with a challenging temperament.     

Pre‐soaking of the feed pellets: a trick for successful feed utilization in juvenile green turtles (Chelonia mydas Linnaeus, 1758)

Pre‐soaking of the feed pellets in water can improve feed utilization in juvenile green turtles (Chelonia mydas Linnaeus, 1758), but the pre‐soaking has not previously been optimized. This study aimed to optimize the water amount used for pre‐soaking the pellets. The experiments followed a completely randomized design with three replications of each dietary treatment group. Initially 10‐day‐old green turtles (20–22 g body weight) were treated in an indoor aquaculture system for 3 months. The dietary treatment pellets were pre‐soaked with 0.3, 0.5 or 0.7 (v/w) relative amounts of water that are here termed soaking ratios. At the end of experiment, there were no significant differences in survival (96% on average) and growth (average body weight 75.34 g and specific growth rate 2%/day, on average) of turtles in three dietary treatments (p > 0.05). Feed utilization was the best in turtles fed with 0.7 pre‐soaked ratio, as indicated by significant reductions (p < 0.05) in the feeding rate (7.44% body weight/day) and the feed conversion ratio (1.12 g feed/g gain). Digestion was also improved by the induction of faecal digestive enzymes as well as the faecal thermal properties. The rapid growth did not negatively affect the general haematological parameters of reared turtles. These findings indicate that the pre‐soaking of feed pellets at the optimal soaking ratio (1:0.7 w/v of pellet to water) can contribute through improved feed utilization of green turtles.     

Pharmacokinetics of marbofloxacin after a single oral dose to loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta)

The single-dose disposition kinetics of marbofloxacin (MBX) were determined in clinically healthy loggerhead sea turtles (n = 5) after oral (PO) administration of 2 mg kg⁻¹ bodyweight. Marbofloxacin plasma concentrations were determined by DAD–HPLC (LOD/LOQ 0.015/0.05 μg ml⁻¹). Data were subjected to non-compartmental analysis. Following PO administration, marbofloxacin achieved maximum plasma concentrations of 11.66 ± 2.53 mg L⁻¹ at 15.00 ± 3.00 h. The absence of general adverse reactions in the turtles of the study, and the favourable pharmacokinetic properties (long half-life and high maximum plasma concentration) of MBX administered PO at the single-dose of 2 mg kg⁻¹ suggest the possibility of its safe and effective clinical use in loggerhead sea turtles.     

Renal Replacement Therapy in Healthy Adult Horses

Background

Renal replacement therapy (RRT) has been implemented extensively in people to facilitate recovery from acute renal failure (ARF). RRT has not been explored in horses, but might provide a further treatment option in horses with ARF.

Objective

To investigate efficacy and safety of RRT in horses.

Animals

Five healthy adult horses.

Methods

A prospective study was performed on horses restrained in stocks and intravenously connected to a commercial RRT machine to allow continuous venovenous hemodiafiltration to be performed for 6 hours. The RRT machine was set at the following flow rates: blood flow rate 250 mL/min; dialysate rate 3,000 mL/h; prefilter replacement pump 3,000 mL/h; and postfilter replacement pump rate 2,000 mL/h. Balanced electrolyte solution was used as dialysate and replacement fluid. Heart rate, respiratory rate, body temperature, direct arterial blood pressure, urine output, and various clinicopathologic parameters were measured over the study period.

Results

Renal replacement therapy was successfully performed in horses, resulting in a mean creatinine clearance of 0.127 mL/kg/min (68.9 mL/min) and urea reduction ratio of 24%. No adverse effects were detected although a significant decrease in rectal temperature was observed (P ≤ .007). A significant increase in serum phosphorus (P ≤ .001) and decrease in BUN (P < .001) were also noted. A significant prolongation of prothrombin (P < .01) and partial thromboplastin time (P < .0001) were observed along with a decrease in platelet count (P ≤ .04).

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

Renal replacement therapy can safely and effectively be used in adult horses.     

Plasma‐Free Metanephrine and Free Normetanephrine Measurement for the Diagnosis of Pheochromocytoma in Dogs

Background

Measurement of plasma‐free metanephrines is the test of choice to identify pheochromocytoma in human patients.

Objectives

To establish the sensitivity and specificity of plasma‐free metanephrine (fMN) and free normetanephrine (fNMN) concentrations to diagnose pheochromocytoma in dogs.

Animals

Forty‐five client‐owned dogs (8 dogs with pheochromocytoma, 11 dogs with adrenocortical tumors, 15 dogs with nonadrenal disease, and 11 healthy dogs.)

Methods

A prospective study. EDTA plasma was collected from diseased and healthy dogs and submitted for fMN and fNMN measurement by liquid chromatography‐tandem mass spectrometry (LC‐MS/MS).

Results

Free MN concentration (median [range]) was significantly higher in dogs with pheochromocytoma (8.15 [1.73–175.23] nmol/L) than in healthy dogs (0.95 [0.68–3.08] nmol/L; P < .01) and dogs with adrenocortical tumors (0.92 [0.25–2.51] nmol/L; P < .001), but was not different from dogs with nonadrenal disease (1.91 [0.41–6.57] nmol/L; P ≥ .05). Free NMN concentration was significantly higher in dogs with pheochromocytoma (63.89 [10.19–190.31] nmol/L) than in healthy dogs (2.54 [1.59–4.17] nmol/L; P < .001), dogs with nonadrenal disease (3.30 [1.30–10.10] nmol/L; P < .001), and dogs with adrenocortical tumors (2.96 [1.92–5.01] nmol/L); P < 0.01). When used to diagnose pheochromocytoma, a fMN concentration of 4.18 nmol/L had a sensitivity of 62.5% and specificity of 97.3%, and a fNMN concentration of 5.52 nmol/L had a sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 97.6%.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

Plasma fNMN concentration has excellent sensitivity and specificity for the diagnosis of pheochromocytoma in dogs, whereas fMN concentration has moderate sensitivity and excellent specificity. Measurement of plasma‐free metanephrines provides an effective, noninvasive, means of identifying dogs with pheochromocytoma.     

Pharmacokinetics of levamisole in the red‐eared slider turtles (Trachemys scripta elegans)

The pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of levamisole were determined in red‐eared slider turtles after single intravenous (IV), intramuscular (IM), and subcutaneous (SC) administration. Nine turtles received levamisole (10 mg/kg) by each route in a three‐way crossover design with a washout period of 30 days. Blood samples were collected at time 0 (pretreatment), and at 0.25, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 3, 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, and 48 hr after drug administration. Plasma levamisole concentrations were determined by a high‐performance liquid chromatography assay. Data were analyzed by noncompartmental methods. The mean elimination half‐life was 5.00, 7.88, and 9.43 hr for IV, IM, and SC routes, respectively. The total clearance and volume of distribution at steady state for the IV route were 0.14 L hr^?1 kg^?1 and 0.81 L/kg, respectively. For the IM and SC routes, the peak plasma concentration was 9.63 and 10.51 μg/ml, respectively, with 0.5 hr of T_max. The bioavailability was 93.03 and 115.25% for the IM and SC routes, respectively. The IM and SC route of levamisole, which showed the high bioavailability and long t_1/2?z, can be recommended as an effective way for treating nematodes in turtles.     

Questionnaire‐based Analysis of Owner‐reported Scratching and Pain Signs in Cavalier King Charles Spaniels Screened for Chiari‐like Malformation and Syringomyelia

Background

Chiari‐like malformation (CM) and syringomyelia (SM) cause a pain syndrome in Cavalier King Charles spaniels (CKCS). Clinical signs are not consistently apparent on neurologic examination, and owner reporting of signs provides vital clinical history. However, owner questionnaires for this disease are not well developed.

Objectives

To develop a tool to capture owner‐reported clinical signs for use in clinical trials and to compare owner‐reported signs with the presence of pain on neurologic examination and SM on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

Animals

Fifty client‐owned CKCS.

Methods

Owners completed a questionnaire and pain/scratch map. Each dog underwent a neurologic examination and craniocervical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Questionnaire responses were developed into scores, area of shading for pain/scratch maps was measured, and consistency of responses between these tools was assessed. Owner‐reported findings were compared with neurologic examination findings and presence and severity of SM on MRI.

Results

Thirty‐three dogs were symptomatic and 17 asymptomatic; 30 had SM. The most common sign of pain was crying out when lifted (n = 11). Extent of shaded areas on maps positively correlated with questionnaire scores for pain (r² = 0.213, P = 0.006) and scratch (r² = 0.104, P = 0.089). Owner‐reported findings were not significantly associated with presence or severity of SM or neurologic examination findings. Owner‐reported lateralization of signs was significantly associated with SM lateralization (P < 0.0001).

Conclusions

The questionnaire and maps may be useful for clinical trials. Lack of association of owner‐reported signs with SM highlights our lack of understanding of the pathophysiology of pain in this disease.     

Retrospective investigation of perioperative risk factors for immediate postoperative corneal erosions in dogs undergoing phacoemulsification

Objective

To characterize the incidence, contributing risk factors, and healing characteristics of immediate postoperative corneal erosions (IPCE) in dogs undergoing routine phacoemulsification.

Animals Studied

Medical records of 313 canine eyes (159 dogs) undergoing routine phacoemulsification surgery.

Procedures

Medical records of dogs undergoing planned cataract surgery at UW Veterinary Care were retrospectively reviewed. Patient-related variables including age, skull conformation, diabetes status, and cataract stage at the time of surgery were recorded. Intraoperative variables per eye were also recorded including surgical technique, surgeon expertise level, average phacoemulsification power, and phacoemulsification time. Diagnosis of IPCE ≤ 24 h after completion of surgery and time to IPCE healing were recorded where follow-up data were available.

Results

Immediate postoperative corneal erosions were observed in 48/313 (15.3%) operated eyes. The presence of diabetes mellitus or brachycephalic skull conformation, preoperative Schirmer tear test (STT) value, surgical technique and surgeon experience level, phacoemulsification time, and absolute phacoemulsification time were not statistically significant risk factors for IPCE. Average phacoemulsification power was associated with IPCE (RR 1.52, p = .001). Time to IPCE healing was similar in diabetic and non-diabetic dogs (median [IQR] 8 [6–11] days and 8 [6–15] days, respectively). Diabetes mellitus, brachycephaly, and phacoemulsification parameters were not associated with IPCE healing at 7 or 14 days postoperatively.

Conclusions

Higher average phacoemulsification power may be associated with the development of IPCE in canine eyes. The presence of diabetes mellitus or brachycephaly are not risk factors for the development of IPCE, nor are they factors that influence IPCE healing.     

Safety and accuracy of blind vs. ultrasound-guided dorsal retrobulbar nerve blocks in horses—A cadaveric study

Objective

There is limited knowledge regarding the safety and accuracy of ultrasound-guided retrobulbar nerve blocks in horses. The aim of this study was to compare these parameters between blind and ultrasound-guided injection techniques for the dorsal retrobulbar nerve block in horses.

Methods

Equine cadaver heads were used to inject the retrobulbar space with contrast medium (CM). Injections were performed either blindly based on anatomic landmarks (blind group, n = 44) or under ultrasonographic guidance (US-group, n = 44), equally divided between an experienced and unexperienced operator. Needle position and distribution of CM were assessed with computed tomography imaging and evaluated by a board-certified veterinary diagnostic imager blinded to the technique. Safety and accuracy of both techniques were compared.

Results

Ocular penetration was observed in two cases (n = 2/44) in the blind group but not in the US group (n = 0/44). No intrathecal, intraneural, or intravascular injections were seen in either group. Safety was significantly improved in the US group (p = .026). There was no statistically significant difference between the groups regarding the accuracy of the injection. Excellent accuracy was achieved more often with the ultrasound-guided technique (n = 11/22) than with the blind technique (n = 7/22) when performed by the unexperienced operator, but this difference was not statistically significant.

Conclusion

To prevent globe-threatening complications and improve the safety of the injection, we recommend using the ultrasound-guided injection technique for the dorsal retrobulbar nerve block.     

Ocular surface physiology and aqueous tear secretion in cats of diverse cephalic conformations

Objective

To describe normative ocular surface and aqueous tear testing data for cats of various cephalic conformation.

Animals studied

Fifty-three healthy adult cats (11 British Shorthair, 11 Burmese, 10 Devon Rex, 10 Scottish Fold, and 11 Sphynx).

Procedures

Blink rate, corneal tactile sensation (CTS), and Schirmer tear test with or without topical anesthesia (STT-1, STT-2) and with nasolacrimal stimulation (NL-STT1, NL-STT2) were assessed. Palpebral fissure length (PFL) and skull morphology were measured, and cephalic index (CI) and craniofacial ratio (CFR) calculated.

Results

Mean ± SD test results were as follows: blink rate (5.0 ± 2.3 blinks/min), CTS (3.2 ± 0.7 cm), STT-1 (11.2 ± 4.3 mm/min), STT-2 (6.7 ± 3.6 mm/min), NL-STT1 (13.4 ± 5.7 mm/min), NL-STT2 (13.5 ± 5.2 mm/min), and PFL (2.0 ± 0.2 cm). Corneal sensitivity did not differ significantly among breeds (p = .152) but was negatively correlated with body weight (r = −.32, p = .019). STT-1 significantly differed among breeds (p < .001) and was lowest in Sphynx cats (8.7 ± 4.3 mm/min). A positive correlation was detected between STT-1 values at 30 and 60 s (r = .98; p < .001). The nasolacrimal reflex significantly increased STT in anesthetized and unanesthetized eyes (approximately +100% and +20%, respectively; p ≤ .002). STT-1 tended to be higher in intact versus neutered cats (p = .062). Age did not impact any test result (p ≥ .085).

Conclusions

Normative data described here serve as a baseline for future studies assessing ocular surface disease in multiple feline breeds. Unlike dogs, brachycephalic cats did not have lower CTS or STT-1 than non-brachycephalic cats.     

Effect of N‐Acetylcysteine Supplementation on Intracellular Glutathione,Urine Isoprostanes,Clinical Score,and Survival in Hospitalized Ill Dogs

Background

Antioxidant depletion and lipid peroxidation have been correlated with disease severity and associated with poor outcomes.

Hypothesis/Objectives

Supplementing dogs with N‐acetylcysteine (NAC) during the first 48 hours of hospitalization will increase cysteine, normalize glutathione concentrations, and decrease the degree of lipid peroxidation associated with illness.

Animals

Sixty systemically ill hospitalized client‐owned dogs and 14 healthy control dogs.

Methods

Randomized investigator‐blinded, placebo‐controlled prospective study. Dogs were randomized to treatment with NAC (n = 30) versus placebo (n = 30). Antioxidants, urine 8‐isoprostane/creatinine (IP/Cr), and clinical score were determined before and after treatment with NAC. Glutathione, cysteine, and vitamin E concentrations were quantified using high‐performance liquid chromatography. Atomic absorption spectroscopy and enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assays were used to quantify selenium and isoprostane concentrations, respectively.

Results

Ill dogs had significantly lower vitamin E concentrations (27 versus 55 μg/mL; P = .0005) as well as elevated IP/Cr ratios (872 versus 399 pg/mg; P = .0007) versus healthy dogs. NAC supplementation significantly increased plasma cysteine (8.67 versus 15.1 μM; P < .0001) while maintaining glutathione concentrations. Dogs in the placebo group experienced a statistically significant decrease in glutathione concentrations (1.49 versus 1.44 mM; P = .0463). Illness severity and survival were unchanged after short duration NAC supplementation.

Conclusions

Ill dogs experience systemic oxidative stress. Supplementation with NAC during the first 48 hours of hospitalization stabilized erythrocyte glutathione concentrations. The clinical impact of this supplementation and glutathione concentration stabilization was undetermined.     

Efficacy of Minocycline in Naturally Occurring Nonacute Ehrlichia canis Infection in Dogs

Background

Minocycline has been used in the treatment of Ehrlichia canis infection in dogs as an alternative to doxycycline, the recommended treatment. However, efficacy of this alternative therapy is unknown.

Objective

To assess the efficacy of minocycline in the treatment of natural occurring E. canis infection in dogs.

Animals

Ten privately owned dogs of mixed breed positive for E. canis by blood PCR.

Methods

Prospective, randomized clinical study. Dogs positive for E. canis by PCR were housed in a kennel environment and randomly allocated to receive doxycycline 10 mg/kg bodyweight PO once daily (“gold standard” control group) or minocycline (extralabel) 10 mg/kg bodyweight PO twice daily (treatment test group) for 28 days. Blood, analyzed by PCR to determine the presence or absence of E. canisDNA, was collected weekly during treatment starting on the first day of treatment and including through day 35, 7 days after the last treatment.

Results

In both groups, one dog tested negative after 7 days of treatment. For the doxycycline group, the latest time to a negative PCR test was after 3 weeks of treatment. For the minocycline group, the latest time was on day 28 of treatment. All dogs tested negative 7 days after the end of treatment.

Conclusion and Clinical Importance

Minocycline can be an effective alternative to doxycycline for clearing E. canis from the blood in nonacute infections.     

Pathology of Fibropapillomatosis in Olive Ridley Turtles Lepidochelys olivacea Nesting in Costa Rica

Abstract

Fibropapillomatosis (FP) is a neoplastic disease that primarily affects green turtles Chelonia mydas in epidemic proportions worldwide. Although several infectious agents (herpesvirus, retrovirus, and papillomavirus) have been associated with the condition, the etiologic agent has not been isolated or characterized. Recently, FP has been reported in other sea turtle species including confirmed cases in loggerhead turtles Caretta caretta in Florida and field observations in olive ridley turtles Lepidochelys olivacea in the Pacific coasts of Mexico and Costa Rica. Skin and tumor specimens were collected from 72 olive ridley turtles nesting in Ostional Wildlife Refuge, Costa Rica, between July and September 1997. In all, 50 tumor biopsies were examined from 25 of the affected turtles. In addition, six biopsies were examined from five turtles that did not have visible masses and served as controls. Grossly, masses were 25 mm or less in diameter, white to gray, smooth to verruciform, raised tumors of the integument of the neck and flippers. Histologically, 42 of 50 were diagnosed as fibropapillomas and eight were classified as chronic active dermatitis and not tumors. Twenty of 42 fibropapillomas were in stages of regression and 9 of the remaining 22 tumors had histological changes that suggested early degeneration within the tumor. During field surveys based on gross lesions, prevalences of 1–10% have been reported in this nesting population. This is considered the first histopathologic confirmation of FP in olive ridley turtles.