Epidemiology of Oestrus ovis infection of sheep in the highveld of Zimbabwe

During a period of 13 months, 507 heads of sheep, obtained from an abattoir near Harare, were examined for infection with Oestrus ovis larvae. The prevalence of infection varied from 6 to 52%, the highest being in November and the lowest in April. The mean annual larval burden was 1.12. The maximum number of larvae recovered from a single head was 57 in the month of November. Two larval peaks were observed, the first and highest in November and the second in August/September. Some flies are present throughout the year, except in May. There are at least 3 generations of flies per year. The wet summer period from January to May seems to be unfavourable, as very few flies are present. There is no overwintering of first instar larvae in the heads of sheep.     

Observations on the epizootiology of gasterophilus intestinalis and G. nasalis in horses in morocco

Ninety four horses from the Settat region of Morocco were examined for Gasterophilus intestinalis and G. nasalis larvae. All the horses were infected with G. intestinalis and 89 with G. nasalis; the mean larval burdens were 219 and 153, respectively. Third instar larvae of both species were present throughout the year. Second instar larvae of G. intestinalis were absent in April and May and those of G. nasalis in April only. More than 50% of horses had total burdens of more than 300 larvae and 4% harboured more than 1000 larvae. Young horses had higher infections than older animals. The period of adult activity of G. intestinalis is from April to October, with a maximum in summer. Second instar larvae of G. intestinalis are present in peak numbers from July to January and the third instars are voided in the faeces mainly in spring and summer.Infection with G. nasalis starts sooner than that with G. intestinalis. Second instar larvae are present from May to December in peak numbers. During January to March, many second instars of G. nasalis were found trapped in nodules.     

Epidemiology of Oestrus ovis in southwest France

From July 1989 to June 1990, 555 heads of adult sheep obtained from Pamiers slaughterhouse (southwest France) were examined for infestation by Oestrus ovis. Infestation was present in 65% of the heads and the mean larval burden per positive case over the year was 24.8. The monthly prevalence rate varied from 44% in April to 88.2% in November. There are usually three generations of Ovis each year: the first March–April, the second in June–July and the last in September–October. There was no fly activity in winter and during the hottest months of summer. On the other hand, nearly all the larvae overwintered as the firs stage.This study emphasizes the seriousness of the problem in the region and the authors recommend three strategic treatments per year during periods of high fly activity.     

Przhevalskiana silenus myiasis among slaughter goats in northern Jordan

During the period December 1998-May 2000, 900 local goats slaughtered at the Irbid Abattoir (northern Jordan) were examined for the larval instars of Przhevalskiana silenus. Of 900 goats, 10% (95% CI: 9,13) were infested with P. silenus larvae. Only the second and third larval instars were seen. A multiple-regression analysis (with the error variance described by the negative-binomial function) suggested that infestation depended on the month of sampling, and that infestation with live larvae was associated with a poorer carcass. The percentage of infested goats and the mean monthly total number of larvae per goat peaked in samples taken in the autumn and winter. Larval numbers were highly aggregated: most animals had no larvae but the maximum was 69. Analysis of the pattern of aggregation suggested that the best model fit was one in which the larvae counts per goat varied with the monthly prevalence.     

National monitoring of Ascaris suum related liver pathologies in English abattoirs: a time-series analysis, 2005-2010

Ascaris suum is the most important internal parasite in farmed pigs world-wide. In England, the BPEX Pig Health Scheme (BPHS) monitors the prevalence of ascariosis in slaughtered finished pigs by identifying milk spots - the healing lesions caused by A. suum larvae migration through the liver. This study investigates the trend of milk spot lesions from July 2005 to December 2010 to identify the progress made by the industry in controlling this parasitic disease. For visual explorations, the monthly prevalence for milk spots was modelled using “STL”, a seasonal-trend decomposition method based on locally weighted regression. Random effects binomial modelling accounting for clustering at batch level was used to test the significance of the trend and seasonality. Additionally, the differences in the milk spot prevalence trends for BPHS members (those that joined the scheme) and non-members were investigated and tested. A mean of 12,442 pigs was assessed per month (in 290 batches) across 12 pig abattoirs over the study period, from which a monthly mean of 7102 pigs (159 batches) came from BPHS members. A mild overall decrease in prevalence of milk spots over the monitored period was identified as well as a seasonal variation which showed peaks in summer and at the beginning of autumn. BPHS members maintained a lower prevalence than non-members. The results from this work illustrate ascariosis as a persistent problem in current farm production.     

Prevalence and intensity of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oestrus ovis</Emphasis> in sheep of Shiraz,southern Iran

Two thousand and two heads obtained from slaughtered sheep at the Fars abattoirs (Shiraz, Southern Iran) between April 2006 and April 2007 were examined for the presence of Oestrus ovis larvae. Of the total heads, 995 (49.7%) were infested with O. ovis larvae. O. ovis larvae were observed in both sexes and all age groups in each season of the year. A total of 6264 larvae were collected. The overall larval intensity for the infested sheep was 6.3, with 3.9 in spring, 5.3 in summer, 5.9 in autumn and 7.8 in winter. Prevalence ranged from 23.3% in spring to 80% in winter. Increased infestation was observed in older animals.     

Prevalence and larval burden of oestrus ovis (Linné 1761) in sheep and goats in northern mediterranean region of France

A slaughterhouse survey to determine prevalence and larval burden of Oestrus ovis larvae in sheep and goats was performed monthly during one year in Pézenas, South of France, northern mediterranean region. A total of 1303 sheep and goat heads were selected at random. O. ovis larvae were found in 274 sheep out of 631 (43.4%), and the prevalence rate varied from 14.3% in February to 65% in October. The mean number of larvae in infected sheep heads was 10.86 with 9.24 L1, 0.91 L2 and 0.71 L3. One hundred and ninety-one goats out of 672 were infected (28.4%), and the prevalence rate varied from 6.25% in September to 47.1% in April. In infected goat heads, the mean parasitic burden was 5.35 with 4.04 L1, 0.73 L2 and 0.58 L3. These results confirm worldwide observations indicating that the prevalence and the parasitic burdens are less in goats than in sheep.     

Epidemiology of Oestrus ovis in southwest France.

From July 1989 to June 1990, 555 heads of adult sheep obtained from Pamiers slaughterhouse (southwest France) were examined for infestation by Oestrus ovis. Infestation was present in 65% of the heads and the mean larval burden per positive case over the year was 24.8. The monthly prevalence rate varied from 44% in April to 88.2% in November. There are usually three generations of Ovis each year: the first March–April, the second in June–July and the last in September–October. There was no fly activity in winter and during the hottest months of summer. On the other hand, nearly all the larvae overwintered as the firs stage.

This study emphasizes the seriousness of the problem in the region and the authors recommend three strategic treatments per year during periods of high fly activity.     

Strongylus vulgaris in donkeys (Equus asinus) from the highveld of Zimbabwe

Strongylus vulgaris populations in the cranial mesenteric arteries, caecum and colon were studied in 14 donkeys obtained from a communal area of the Zimbabwean highveld during July and November, 1986, and January and April 1987. Adult parasites were present in all animals and larvae in the cranial mesenteric arteries of 12 animals. Aged animals had high worm burdens. The number of adult parasites varied from 63 to 1255 (mean 382) and of larvae in the arteries from 0 to 181 (mean 69). The mean adult worm burdens were highest in July (400) and November (488), and lowest in April (107). The mean arterial larval burden was highest in July (130) and lowest in November (21). These observations indicate that infection with S. vulgaris takes place during the rainy season resulting in the heavy arterial larval population from January onwards and the heavy adult population during the dry season.     

Strategic anthelmintic treatment of young cattle during summer in a Mediterranean-type climatic environment

A worm-control program utilising treatment of young grazing cattle with fenbendazole on two occasions during summer was tested in the Mediterranean-type climatic environment of south-west Western Australia. The grazing system aimed to produce steers by introducing three-month-old weaned calves to pasture in mid-winter until they were sold in early summer. Comparisons were made of the numbers of worm eggs passed on to plots by treated and untreated animals during autumn, the performances of treated and untreated cattle and the performances of calves introduced to the plots in mid-winter. The “tracer” calf technique was used to determine the availability of infective larvae on one untreated and one treated plot for each of the two years of the experiment.Treated animals deposited less Ostertagia spp. eggs on to pasture during autumn than did untreated animals in one of the two years. In both years they deposited less eggs of worm species other than Ostertagia spp. Less intestinal worms were acquired by “tracer” calves grazing treatment plots than those grazing no-treatment plots in both years, but there were no differences in the number of abomasal worms acquired.The reduction in availability of infective larvae of intestinal worms was insufficient to prevent the occurrence of parasitic gastroenteritis in calves introduced to the plots in mid-winter. The fenbendazole treatments did not confer any immediate body-weight advantage on treated animals.On both treatment and no-treatment plots, there were few infective larvae available to grazing cattle during early autumn, there was a rapid attainment of peak availability in winter and then a decline to low availability by mid-spring. In one year, infective larvae of intestinal worms (almost exclusively Cooperia spp.) increased in availability again in late spring and early summer. A high proportion of retarded worms was never a feature of the worm counts of “tracer” calves.It was concluded that the treatments may have been more effective had they been given during autumn.     

Factors affecting the survival and migration of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematode parasites of cattle in central queensland

Faecal pats containing parasitic nematode eggs were deposited monthly on worm-free pasture, from mid-1975 to early in 1979, near Rockhampton in central Queensland. Pasture samples were collected monthly from beside these pats and the number of infective larvae on the samples was counted.

Cooperia spp. were the most numerous larvae on pasture all year round and Haemonchus placei were commonly present in low numbers. Small numbers of Oesophagostonum radiatum larvae were found, mostly during summer.

Dung beetle activity and rainfall influenced larval populations on pasture, but temperature did not. Beetles were not active in winter, and pats deposited in spring, summer and autumn when beetles were active yielded only 42, 44 and 26%, respectively, as many larvae per 1000 eggs deposited as winter pats. Pats in which beetle activity was minimal (feeding only), moderate and intense (complete destruction), yielded 43, 10 and 6%, respectively, as many larvae per 1000 eggs as intact pats.

Larval densities on pasture were highest after the first saturating rains during the spring-summer period and most of these larvae migrated from unattacked pats deposited in winter. Beetle numbers and activity increased with the summer rains and so few larvae were available to migrate onto pasture during late summer and autumn when the highest falls of rain were recorded. The regression of larval recovery on rainfall was positive and statistically significant when data collected soon after these very heavy rainfall periods were omitted from the analysis.

In 1977, drought-breaking rains increased the normal larval density on pasture 10-fold because larvae in pats deposited in the last 4 months of the drought migrated onto pasture immediately after the rains.

This work suggests that in summer rainfall areas where dung beetles are active, helminth control may be achieved by reducing the worm egg output from cattle during the winter.     

新疆地区降水分布的空间插值方法比较

利用新疆及周边地区的154个气象站点资料,采用反距离权重法(IDW)、普通克里金法(Kriging)、协同克里格法(Cokriging)、贝叶斯法(EBK)和ANUSPLIN软件5种方法,对新疆地区1995-2004年10年间的月降水量空间插值模拟结果进行了交叉检验。结果表明,在新疆地区,5种方法的插值精度表现为ANUSPLIN>Cokriging>EBK>Kriging>IDW,并随月份有所变化,平均绝对误差(MAE)和均方根误差(RMSE)表现为秋冬两季误差低于春夏两季,平均相对误差(MRE)的值在春季和秋季较高。与已建立的新疆的降水量分布格局进行比较发现,ANUSPLIN兼顾了插值曲面的准确度与平滑度,它较为准确地反映了新疆地区降水空间分布的特征,EBK法在4月和7月插值结果与实际偏差较大,而1月和10月插值效果较好,Cokriging法插值结果均质性较差,并不能反映新疆实际降水的空间分布。Kriging法在10月插值效果较好外,在其他3个月的插值效果不好,IDW法的最大值或者最小值主要分布在台站周围,与实际情况相差较远。     

Seasonal abundance,growth and production of Palaemon pacificus (Stimpson) in eastern Cape tidal pools

The shrimp Palaemon pacificus was sampled monthly from six tidal pools for two years. The shrimp populations varied seasonally with peak numbers and biomass found in summer (December to March) following a major influx of juveniles in November. These recruits were composed of discrete modal groups (bimodal) which spread and became less obvious by April (polymodal). Females had a greater mean size range than males. The sex ratio varied temporally and overall male:female ratios varied from 1:1,66 to 1:2,96. Average shrimp total length was significantly correlated to the average and maximum pool depth and to log pool volume while the average number of cohorts per year was found to be negatively correlated to these parameters. In smaller pools the shrimp disappeared above 20-30 mm but remained up to reproductive age in the deeper pools. Average residence time was positively correlated to pool depth, but not to log volume. Mean summer growth rates were almost double those in winter and were combined in the von Bertalanffy growth equation L, = 64,51 (1-e^{-0,08902(t-0,1001})). P. pacificus reaches first maturity from egg at six months for males and 12 months 2 for females. Mean annual production varied between pools from 0,22 to 2,0 g m ^-2 and biomass from 0,06 to 0,5 gm^-2. The highest P/B ratio of 4,24 was obtained from the smallest pool which had a low biomass but high productivity and shrimp turnover.     

THE EPIDEMIOLOGY OF EQUINE STRONGYLOSIS IN SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND 1. The Bionomics of the Free-Living Stages in Faeces and on Pasture

SUMMARY Development of the free-living stages of strongylid nematodes of the horse to the infective stage occurred in faeces in all months of the year in southern Queensland, at a rate which depended on the season. Most rapid development to the infective stage occurred in the warmer months, with the hatching of strongyle eggs being completed in 2 days in summer. During the winter, egg hatching continued for over 2 weeks. Larval moults proceeded at a faster rate in summer—all larvae were infective in 7 days during the hottest months, but it was as long as 5 weeks before all were infective in winter. However, even though development was rapid in summer, survival rates varied from 1 to 10%, in contrast to the spring and autumn, when over 80% reached the infective stage. One percent of larvae in faeces survived for up to 20 weeks in autumn and winter, but for only 4 weeks in summer. These results highlight the inadequacy of short-term pasture spelling for all but the hottest months. Infective larvae were found on herbage in all months of the year, but greatest numbers were recovered in spring and early summer, and in autumn and early winter. The relationship of pasture infestation to migration of larvae from Paecal reservoirs in response to rain was clearly shown. Most infective larvae were found within 30 cm of faecal masses, and in fact 89% of all larvae isolated from herbage in this study were found within 15 cm of faeces. Migration of larvae from faeces to herbage occurred with falls of rain as small as 25 mm. Horse faecal masses dried out completely in 6–8 days in summer and in 14–16 days in winter. Strongyle larvae developed to the infective stage in faeces in the absence of rain, although many remained in the pre-infective stage and completed their development when rain fell. This study shows that massive contamination of pastures with the eggs of strongylid nematodes must be prevented in spring and autumn if susceptible young horses are not to be at serious risk.     

Population dynamics of ticks on Ankole cattle in five ecological zones in burundi and strategies for their control

Tick populations were observed on Ankole (Sanga type Bos indicus x Bos taurus) cattle at monthly intervals over periods of 2–3 years in 4 ecological zones (Gatumba (830-m alt., 789-mm rain); Gitega (1671-m alt., 1122-mm rain); Kirundo (1420-m alt., 1076-mm rain) and Gihofi (1260-m alt., 1225-mm rain)) of Burundi, Central Africa. Concurrently, observations were made on the development and survival of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus in pastures at each location. Ticks were also counted on cattle in a fifth, high altitude zone (Ijenda, 2191-m alt., 1549-mm rain) for a period of 2 years. Rainfall was monomodal at all sites and fell between September and May. The species composition and total numbers of ticks infesting cattle in the 5 ecological zones varied. The most common species recorded were R. appendiculatus, Boophilus decoloratus and Amblyomma variegatum. The highest average number of adult females of the above species completing engorgement daily was 29 R. appendiculatus at Kirundo, 13 B. decoloratus at Ijenda and A. variegatum at Gitega. The regions differed slightly in their overall level of tick infestation, as measured by the average numbers of adult female ticks of all species engorging daily, i.e. Kirundo (34), Gatumba (27), Gitega (26), Ijenda (21) and Gihofi (11). Adults of A. variegatum exhibited the strongest seasonal pattern of feeding, with peaks early in the wet season. Non-climatic factors were apparently important in determining the relative numbers of A. variegatum in different regions. Development times of the free-living stages of R., appendiculatus in pastures varied between locations, taking 3 weeks for engorged larvae, 4–7 weeks for nymphs and 6–9 weeks for oviposition and egg development. Engorged larvae and nymphs suffered the least mortality while egg hatching was reduced in the dry season. Fifty percent of unfed larvae survived 1.5–3 months, nymphs 3–5 months and adults 16 months. Parasitic ticks completed engorgement more successfully when attached in preferred sites on the host's body.Computer simulations were used to estimate the proportional reduction in numbers of R. appendiculatus from dipping strategies with different timing, duration and efficiency. Strategies of 3-months duration, with the start timed to coincide with the period of adult feeding activity, were economically the most efficient. Computer simulations suggested that the annual cattle migration from the highlands to the lowlands in the dry season was important in limiting the size of tick populations. These results were taken into account when designing a policy to make the best use of the country's resources.     

Epidemiology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oestrus ovis</Emphasis> infection of sheep in northeast Spain (mid-Ebro Valley)

Slaughterhouse surveys to determine the prevalence and intensity of larval Oestrus ovis Linnaeus (Diptera: Oestridae) in sheep, were conducted monthly for 1 year in northeastern Spain. The prevalence of O. ovis in 120 sheep in northeast Spain was 84.2%. The monthly prevalence ranged from 62.5% in January to 100% in June and October. Of the 3,831 larvae collected, 3,005 were first instar larvae (78.4%), 744 second instar larvae (19.4%), and 82 third instar larvae (2.1%). The mean larval burden per infected sheep was 37.9, throughout the year although infection was higher in October. The high number of first stage larvae in winter (especially October, November, and December) may be due to a period of slower larval maturation. Third-stage larvae were always present but sometimes in very low numbers compared to the total. According to the results, oestrosis appears to be a serious problem in the region.     

中国天然草地净初级生产力时空分布

利用基于草原综合顺序分类系统（CSCS）的改进CASA模型,估算2004-2008年中国草地净初级生产力并分析其时空分布特征。结果表明：2004-2008年中国草地NPP年平均为489.4 g C·m^-2·a^-1,5年里草地NPP总体呈现增加趋势。草地NPP的积累期主要发生在水、热搭配较好的4-10月,占了全年总量的89.1%。春（3月-5月）、夏（6月-8月）、秋（9月-11月）、冬（12月-2月）四季的草地NPP各自占全年总量的18.6%,59.6%,17.4%和4.5%。由年际、月份—空间和季节—空间的NPP变化可知,适宜的水热搭配是草地NPP积累的关键。中国草地NPP随经度的递增而逐渐增大,随纬度的增大而逐渐减小,但存在一定的波动性,其变化规律与水、热状况的地带性规律相一致。     

Kikuyu over-sown with ryegrass and clover: dry matter production,botanical composition and nutritional value

The seasonality of growth and low nutritional value of kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) pasture restrict milk production. The aim of the study was to determine the dry matter yield, botanical composition and nutritional value of irrigated kikuyu over-sown with annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum var. westerwoldicum), white clover (Trifolium repens) and red clover (T. pratense) or a mixture of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) with white and red clovers under intensive grazing conditions with dairy cows. The incorporation of annual ryegrass, perennial clover or perennial ryegrass–clover into kikuyu pasture changed the seasonal fodder flow and increased the spring dry matter (DM) production. The over-sowing of kikuyu with annual ryegrass had no effect on the DM production of kikuyu during the summer and autumn. Kikuyu and kikuyu–ryegrass, fertilised with nitrogen fertiliser, had a higher DM production rate than kikuyu–clover pastures. Kikuyu–ryegrass pasture transformed from ryegrass-dominant in spring to kikuyu-dominant in summer and only kikuyu in autumn. This led to a decrease in metabolisable energy (ME) and increase in neutral detergent fibre (NDF) content of the pasture during spring, summer and autumn as kikuyu became more dominant. The clover content of kikuyu over-sown with clover decreased annually but was still higher than 30% at the end of two years after establishment. As the kikuyu content of the kikuyu–clover pastures increased, the seasonal growth rate changed from a low autumn growth (37.9 kg DM ha^?1 d^?1) in the first year to a higher autumn growth (48.5 kg DM ha^?1 d^?1) in the second year. The over-sowing of kikuyu with clover resulted in lower DM production and NDF values and higher crude protein (CP), ME and calcium (Ca) values. The lowest CP content in kikuyu–ryegrass pasture was during summer and autumn when kikuyu was dominant. The Ca content of the grass pastures (kikuyu and kikuyu–ryegrass) was low. The phosphorus (P) content of both the kikuyu–clover and grass pastures exceeded the requirement needed for dairy production (0.38%). The mean Ca:P ratio of the kikuyu–clover pasture meets the 1.6:1 ratio needed by dairy cows. The kikuyu and kikuyu–ryegrass pasture had a Ca:P ratio lower than 1:1 and Ca supplementation would be needed for dairy cows. The incorporation of annual ryegrass, perennial clover or perennial ryegrass–clover into kikuyu pasture improved the seasonal DM production and nutritional value of the pasture.     

Population dynamics of Lemniscomys rosaiia (Muridae: Rodentia) in a Swaziland grassland: effects of food and fire

The effects of food supplementation on a population of Lemniscomys rosalia were studied experimentally in a grassland habitat in Swaziland. Food was added bi-weekly to two 1-ha grids, while a single 1-ha grid served as the control. Rodent traps were set monthly over a 12 month period. Food supplementation may have affected the density of L. rosalia, but did not affect any other features of the population. Breeding commenced in September and ended in April (males) and May (females). Recruitment of juveniles occurred between January and March, Adult mean body mass increased from a low in winter (June/July) to a high in late summer (February). The drop in mean body mass in autumn was due to the disappearance of heavy adults and entry of the lighter subadults into the population. Mean survival of L. rosalia was low; 81% of all captured individuals disappeared within four months. An unscheduled fire burnt part of the study area and hence allowed an assessment of the effect of fire on L. rosalia. The fire did not cause undue mortality of L. rosalia, however, burnt areas were avoided for three months until grass cover had sufficiently increased.     

Parasites of domestic and wild animals in South Africa. XLII. Helminths of sheep on four farms in the Eastern Cape Province

At monthly intervals for periods ranging from 9 to 25 consecutive months between three and four Merino yearling-sheep and two Merino lambs on three farms in Eastern Cape Thornveld, and two Dorper yearling-sheep on a farm in Valley Bushveld were slaughtered and examined for helminths. The Merino sheep were infected with 15 nematode species, of which Haemonchus contortus, Nematodirus spathiger and Trichostrongylus spp. were the most numerous, and with four cestode species. The Dorper sheep were infected with 17 nematode species, of which Trichostrongylus rugafus and N. spathiger were the most numerous, and with two cestode species. Haemonchus contortus was most numerous in older sheep during the summer months and exhibited no tendency to over-winter as arrested fourth stage larvae. The largest numbers of N. spathiger were present in sheep on the most coastally located of the farms during autumn and winter; on a farm further inland during spring; and on an inland farm in Valley Bushveld during spring and summer. As Merino lambs progressed from birth to 9 months of age a larger proportion of their dwindling burdens of N. spathiger was present as fourth stage larvae. Dorper sheep in Valley Bushveld harboured most Teladorsagia circumcincta in May and from October to January. Trichostrongylus rugatus was most numerous in Merino sheep on one of the Thornveld farms during September, whereas all Trichostrongylus spp., including T. rugatus, were most numerous in Dorper sheep on the Valley Bushveld farm during January.