Overlap in mangrove species zonal patterns: some methods of analysis

Considerable variety is to be found in zonal expression within the mangroves of riverine estuaries in tropical northeastern Australia. Detailed surveys have shown that this is partly due to differences in the sequencing order of taxa across the intertidal surface (Bunt, 1996). However, it is evident that the clarity and pattern of zonation may also be affected by overlap in species distributions. The need to consider the latter in detail arose in the course of ongoing surveys. For the latter purpose, procedures are here described that enable complex field data sets to be analysed in numeric and graphical terms. Data for a single transect from the Endeavour river have been used to explain the methods used and to illustrate results.     

Complexity and variety of zonal pattern in the mangroves of the Hinchinbrook area, Northeastern Australia

Hinchinbrook Island, a wilderness National Park, lies closely adjacent to the Australian mainland within the boundaries of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage area. The mangroves that occupy much of its shoreline and the neighbouring mainland intertidal are major features. Recent preliminary surveys have revealed considerable floristic variety at local scales and, over the total area, often intricate vegetal patterning (Bunt, 1997). It is the intention now to define the most conspicuous features in numeric and graphical terms. Particular attention has been given to differences in shore normal species sequencing within the study area and to the complexities associated with overlap in species distributions.     

Restoration of the mangrove vegetation in the Mahanadi delta,Orissa, India

In India, mangroves occupy 6740 km² of which the Mahanadi delta andBhitarkanika mangrove forests of Orissa cover 191.44 km², most of whichhas been severely overexploited. World wide concern to conserve mangrovesnecessitated propagation of mangroves to re-establish them on barren andswampy land along tidal creeks around Paradeep port of Orissa. Avicenniaofficinalis, Aegiceras corniculatum, Bruguiera parviflora, B. sexangula,Ceriops decandra, Excoecaria agallocha, Heritiera fomes, Kandelia candel,Rhizophora mucronata, Sonneratia apetala were vegetatively propagated andplanted over 10 ha of degraded salt-marshy wetlands of Mahanadi delta inpure and mixed stands depending on the intensity and the frequency of tidalinundation at the experimental site. Survival was significantly higher(80%) in S. apetala followed by A. officinalis, R. mucronata, K.candel and H. fomes (70–75%). S. apetala recorded the maximumgrowth in height (3.0 m after 2 years) whereas C. decandra showed theminimum growth (0.5 m). Growth performance was better with plants in mixedstands than the plantation with single species. This gives us hope topropagate and re-establish mangroves for conservation in scientificallymanaged plantations in a physiologically arid environment.     

Vertical accretion and shallow subsidence in a mangrove forest of southwestern Florida,U.S.A.

Simultaneous measurements of vertical accretion from artificial soilmarker horizons and soil elevation change from sedimentation-erosion table(SET) plots were used to evaluate the processes related to soil building infringe, basin, and overwash mangrove forests located in a low-energy lagoonwhich receives minor inputs of terrigenous sediments. Vertical accretionmeasures reflect the contribution of surficial sedimentation (sedimentdeposition and surface root growth). Measures of elevation change reflectnot only the contributions of vertical accretion but also those ofsubsurface processes such as compaction, decomposition and shrink-swell. Thetwo measures were used to calculate amounts of shallow subsidence (accretionminus elevation change) in each mangrove forest. The three forest typesrepresent different accretionary environments. The basin forest was locatedbehind a natural berm. Hydroperiod here was controlled primarily by rainfallrather than tidal exchange, although the basin flooded during extreme tidalevents. Soil accretion here occurred primarily by autochthonous organicmatter inputs, and elevation was controlled by accretion and shrink-swell ofthe substrate apparently related to cycles of flooding-drying and/or rootgrowth-decomposition. This hydrologically-restricted forest did notexperience an accretion or elevation deficit relative to sea-level rise. Thetidally dominated fringe and overwash island forests accreted throughmineral sediment inputs bound in place by plant roots. Filamentous turfalgae played an important role in stabilizing loose muds in the fringeforest where erosion was prevalent. Elevation in these high-energyenvironments was controlled not only by accretion but also by erosion and/orshallow subsidence. The rate of shallow subsidence was consistently3–4 mm y^–1 in the fringe and overwash island forests butwas negligible in the basin forest. Hence, the vertical development ofmangrove soils was influenced by both surface and subsurface processes andthe processes controlling soil elevation differed among forest types.The mangrove ecosystem at Rookery Bay has remained stable as sea levelhas risen during the past 70 years. Yet, lead-210 accretion data suggest asubstantial accretion deficit has occurred in the past century (accretionwas 10–20 cm < sea-level rise from 1930 to 1990) in the fringe andisland forests at Rookery Bay. In contrast, our measures of elevation changemostly equalled the estimates of sea-level rise and our short term estimatesof vertial accretion exceeded the estimates by the amount of shallowsubsidence. These data suggest that (1) vertical accretion in this system isdriven by local sea-level rise and shallow subsidence, and (2) the mangroveforests are mostly keeping pace with sea-level rise. Thus, the vulnerabilityof this mangrove ecosystem to sea-level rise is best described in terms ofan elevation deficit (elevation change minus sea-level rise) based on annualmeasures rather than an accretion deficit (accretion minus sea-level rise)based on decadal measures.     

Distribution and stem growth patterns of mangrove species along the Nakara River in Iriomote Island, Southwestern Japan

We examined variations in stand structure and tree growth of a mangrove forest along two gradients: from the river mouth to upper stream and from the riverside to inland, along the Nakara River, Iriomote Island, Japan. Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk. occurred throughout the intertidal area, though Rhizophora stylosa Griff. and Kandelia candel (L) Druce did not occur upstream. Basal area and maximum tree height of B. gymnorrhiza decreased downstream. The growth rate in stem diameter of B. gymnorrhiza decreased downstream in relation with the soil salinity. The basal area and the maximum tree height of B. gymnorrhiza increased with the distance from the riverside. R. stylosa increased in stem diameter and growth rate toward the riverside.     

Allometric relationship for estimating above-ground biomass of Aegialitis rotundifolia Roxb. of Sundarbans mangrove forest, in Bangladesh

Tree biomass plays a key role in sustainable management by providing different aspects of ecosystem. Estimation of above ground biomass by non-destructive means requires the development of allometric equations. Most researchers used DBH (diameter at breast height) and TH (total height) to develop allometric equation for a tree. Very few species-specific allometric equations are currently available for shrubs to estimate of biomass from measured plant attributes. Therefore, we used some of readily measurable variables to develop allometric equations such as girth at collar-height (GCH) and height of girth measuring point (GMH) with total height (TH) for A. rotundifolia, a mangrove species of Sundarbans of Bangladesh, as it is too dwarf to take DBH and too irregular in base to take Girth at a fixed height. Linear, non-linear and logarithmic regression techniques were tried to determine the best regression model to estimate the above-ground biomass of stem, branch and leaf. A total of 186 regression equations were generated from the combination of independent variables. Best fit regression equations were determined by examining co-efficient of determination (R2), co-efficient of variation (CV), mean-square of the error (MSerror), residual mean error (Rsme), and F-value. Multiple linear regression models showed more efficient over other types of regression equation. The performance of regression equations was increased by inclusion of GMH as an independent variable along with total height and GCH.     

Porewater dynamics and the formation of iron sulfides in a mangrove ecosystem,Sepetiba Bay,Brazil

Porewater dynamics and the formation of iron sulfides were studied in the Brazilian mangrove. Porewater samples were collected during tidal cycles using in situ equipment and physical–chemical and chemical data were obtained. The advective transport of porewater by tidal currents was found to be more effective between 0 and 5cm depth than below 15cm. The diffusive input of atmospheric oxygen during low tides resulted in oxidation of porewater dissolved sulfides. Thermodynamic considerations identified pyrite as the main iron sulfide forming at this depth, and the amorphous iron hydroxides are probably the main iron source. Below 15cm depth, irregular root distribution underground and benthic faunal bioturbation caused considerable spatial variation in a small scale (20cm). The correlation between alkalinity and total dissolved sulfide suggests that the main pathway for organic matter decomposition is sulfate reduction. Formed in the highly sulfidic diagenetic zone, the dissolved iron went through iron sulfide formation process. Crystalline iron oxides like hematite and magnetite may constitute an important iron source below 15cm, whereas pyrite is still the most probably occurring iron sulfide, according to thermodynamic considerations.     

Extensive shrimp farming,mangrove clearance and marine fisheries in the southern provinces of Vietnam

Within the last decade shrimp farming in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam has increased by 3500%. Shrimp farming became un-sustainable in the early 1990's due to the un-planned development of this industry and the resulting self pollution of the farms, the destruction of mangrove forest and the outbreak of viral diseases. Historical data on fisheries, fishing effort and mangrove coverage were obtained from the province Minh Hai (lately divided in Ca Mau and Bac Lieu). Analysis of catch and effort data of marine fisheries in the Mekong Delta indicated a severe danger of over-exploitation of fish stocks and further decline can be expected if fisheries management only considers the demand for fish. The relation between the total fish catch (t/year), the mangrove area (ha), the engine capacity (HP) of the fishing fleet and the social incentive for fishing could be described with the model: Total catch=0.449*Mangrove area + 0.614 Engine capacity + 654 Social factor. One hectare of mangrove forest supports a marine catch of 450 kg/year     

Recent changes of the mangroves of the Saloum River Estuary,Senegal

The water, soil and vegetation characteristics are presented of themangroves of the Saloum River estuary, Senegal, in 1995 and 1996. Themangroves have changed markedly due to decreasing rainfall and increasingevaporation rates, particularly in the 1980s, as well as new oceanographicconditions resulting from the breaching of a protective sand dune. Thehealth of the remaining mangrove communities depends on the localhydrological and hydrodynamic conditions, the microtopography, the humanexploitation of the forest and the clay-sand composition of the soils.     

Biogeography of mangrove and saltmarsh vegetation: implications for conservation and management in Australia

Despite an undeserved reputation for being dull and homogenous systems, mangal and saltmarsh in Australia have highly complex patterns and processes. Their role as key edge systems between land and sea has implications for many species which have larval stages in mangal and saltmarsh, but spend adult life as benthic, pelagic or demersal species. Many such species are also important commercially. Mangal and saltmarsh are both highly dynamic systems, reacting rapidly to changes in hydrological condition and sedimentation. In many areas of the world mangal and saltmarsh are threatened systems, especially near human habitation. Appropriate management strategies for mangal and saltmarsh are therefore critical for both conservation and sustainable use, the two key objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Clearing and associated development, invasion of alien species, pollution effects and poor management are the key threats to these systems. Management at a bioregional level, including the development of a comprehensive system of protected areas, is identified as the key management strategy which will ensure an adequate future for these dynamic systems.     

Early growth and survival of Eucalyptus pellita provenances in a range of tropical environments,compared with E. grandis,E. urophylla and Acacia mangium

Provenance/family trials of Eucalyptus pellita F. Muell were established at three seasonally-dry tropical sites in northern Australia (two in north Queensland and one on Melville Island in the Northern Territory), and at Luasong, a tropical site with year-round high rainfall and humidity in Sabah, Malaysia. After 2–3 years, it was clear that New Guinea provenances outperformed Queensland provenances in their survival, growth and form, and in their crown health, in the humid tropical environment of Luasong. New Guinea provenances were also clearly superior to Queensland provenances in their growth and form at Melville Island, but less clearly so at Cardwell, Queensland. Among Queensland provenances, Helenvale and Kuranda were superior to the more northerly Cape York provenances, Tozers Gap and Lankelly Creek, while there was little difference between the two New Guinea provenances tested, Bupul-Muting (Irian Jaya) and Keru (Papua New Guinea). Significant differences in growth traits, form and survival were demonstrated between families within provenances. In a species/provenance trial at Luasong, E. pellita displayed better growth and survival than tropical provenances of E. grandis and E. urophylla, but was inferior in growth and crown health to Acacia mangium.     

马鞍山江滩3个杨树无性系的生长比较

对安徽省马鞍山市长江滩地8年生的Ⅰ-72、Ⅰ-69和中林46计3种杨树无性系混交林进行了调查。结果表明,中林46杨的胸径、树高和材积生长量均明显小于Ⅰ-72杨和Ⅰ-69杨。8年生的中林46杨平均材积只有0.199m3/株,Ⅰ-72杨和Ⅰ-69杨的平均材积分别是0.499 m3/株和0.360 m3/株。Ⅰ-72杨的胸径明显大于Ⅰ-69杨,但树高差异很小。就以上3种杨树无性系而言,中林46杨不宜在长江滩地上进行造林;Ⅰ-72杨和Ⅰ-69杨较适宜,尤其是在大株行距造林中,采用Ⅰ-72杨则更容易培育大径材。     

Concentration and molecular weight distribution of dissolved organic carbon in a mangrove creek in the Hinchinbrook area,Australia

The concentration and molecular weight distribution of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) are reported for a mangrove creek in the Hinchinbrook area, Australia. DOC concentration ranged from 1.0mg Cl–1 near the creek mouth to 2.2mg Cl–1 at the innermost part of the creek. There was no apparent spatial trend in molecular weight distribution of DOC, with a >300gmol–1 fraction accounting for about 70% of the total in all samples. DOC concentration fluctuated between 0.5 and 1.2mg Cl–1 over one tidal cycle. The samples collected at low tide and during the rising tide were dominated by DOC of >300gmol–1 and <300gmol–1, respectively. This suggested the export of high molecular weight DOC, probably originating from litter leachates, and the import of low molecular weight DOC to the creek.     

Modelling the impacts of various thinning intensities on tree growth and survival in a mixed species eucalypt forest in central Gippsland,Victoria, Australia

The response of tree survival and diameter growth to thinning treatments was examined over 29 years, in various thinning treatments established in a 21-year-old even-aged mixed species regenerating forest in Victoria, Australia. The treatments were control, crown release, strip thinning and three different intensities of thinning from below (light, moderate, and heavy). Each treatment was replicated three times in a complete randomised design. Logistic and multilevel regression analyses showed that tree survival, growth and thinning response (change of tree growth due to a thinning treatment) were functions of tree species, size, age, removed and remaining competition, as well as time since the treatment. Mean annual tree diameter growth in unthinned stands was highest for Eucalyptus sieberi L. Johnson (1.9 mm) followed by Eucalyptus baxteri (Benth.) Maiden & Blakely ex J. Black (1.6 mm), and lowest for both Eucalyptus consideniana (Maiden) and Eucalyptus radiata (Sieber ex DC) combined (0.7 mm). Diameter growth increased with tree size for both E. sieberi and E. baxteri, but not for E. consideniana and E. radiata. Smaller trees were more likely to die due to shading and suppression than their larger counterparts. A mortality model suggested, however, that both shading and suppression had very little effect on trees in both E. consideniana and E. radiata species, which were less likely to die compared to trees in the other species. This result indicates that both E. consideniana and E. radiata species may be relatively shade tolerant compared with the other species. Total thinning response was a sum of positive (increased growing space) and negative (thinning stress) effects. Following thinning, smaller trees showed signs of thinning stress for the first one or two years, after which the highest percentage thinning response was observed. While larger trees were initially less responsive to thinning, the rate of decrease in the response for subsequent years was greater in smaller trees than larger ones. The average amount of thinning response showed similar trends to diameter growth increasing from E. sieberi (1.7 mm) through E. baxteri (0.6 mm) to both E. consideniana and E. radiata (0.5 mm). This translates into low average percentage thinning response in E. baxteri (34%), twice as much in both E. consideniana and E. radiata (69%) and highest overall percentage response in E. sieberi (87%). Thinning response and the duration of this response appeared to increase with thinning intensity and was still evident 29 years after thinning. Heavy thinning did, however, reduce the number of trees to a severely under-stocked condition, which prohibited optimum site occupancy, requiring 29 years of post-thinning development for the heavily thinned stands to regain their pre-thinning stand basal area.     

东北蕨类植物区系特征与分区

东北蕨类植物计２４科５１属１４０余种、变种，是中国北方蕨类多样性最丰富的地区。根据属的现代地理分布，东北蕨类植物可划分成７种地理成分，其中以北温带成分和东亚成分所占比例最大，反映了本区系的温带性质。区系中包含了东北亚蕨类植物区系的２个特有属，３０个特有种，是东北亚蕨类植物区系的中心区域。本区系与周围蕨类植物区系存在着广泛而复杂的联系：与朝鲜的共有种多达１０４种，与日本的共有种达１００种，与俄罗斯远东的共有种为８１种，与华北地区的共有种７２种，与秦岭地区的共有种７０种，与蒙古的共有种５３种，与西伯利亚的共有种４６种，与北美洲及欧洲的共有种各为３９种。根据蕨类植物的分布特点和种类组成，将东北蕨类植物区系划分成４个区，即长白、大兴安岭、蒙古、华北蕨类植物区。长白区有蔬类植物１２４种，东北亚特有成分主要分布于本区，是东北蕨类植物区系的中心区域；华北区有蕨类植物８７种，喜温喜热成分较多，反映了东北蕨类植物一定的热带、亚热带亲缘；大兴安岭区有蕨类植物４３种；蒙古区有蕨类植物近３０种，多耐寒、耐旱种类。东北蕨类植物的垂直分布带谱是很明显的，以长白山为例，海拔５００ｍ以下为落叶林蕨类植物带，海拔５００—１０００ｍ为暗针叶林     

金沙江干热河谷不同土壤水分对台湾青枣根系生长的影响

通过田间试验研究了不同水分处理下台湾青枣根系的分布状况,调查分析了不同径级根系数量、根系含水率、根系密度等项目。结果表明:台湾青枣根系主要分布在0-60 cm的土壤中,根系数量随土壤含水量的降低而增加,但根系含水率则是随着土壤含水量的增加而增加,而根系数量则随着土壤含水量的减少而增多的特征。因此,A处理(土壤含水量为田间持水量的40%-55%)是台湾青枣生长的最适水量,通过人为控制土壤含水量,以此调节根系生长与空间分布,最终达到调控作物生长和产量。     

Productivity of three successive rotations of P. radiata plantations in South Australia over a century

In the southeast of South Australia and the adjacent south west of Victoria (called the Green Triangle Region), planting of Pinus radiata D. Don (radiata pine) plantations began about 130 years ago and these now occupy 175,000 ha. They are growing on sites with generally podsolised sandy soils, low in soil fertility and where evaporation typically exceeds precipitation for five to six months of the year. Regional softwood industries producing a range of value added products are completely dependant on the versatile radiata pine wood from these plantations.     

Change in river water chemistry as affected by the confluence of forest drainage water in dairy farming area on Hokkaido Island, Northern Japan

We evaluated i) the difference in river water chemistry between a watershed mainly consisting of pasture and a watershed mainly consisting of forest, and ii) how the chemistry of river draining the pasture is influenced by that of the river draining the forest. We selected one river (designated as the T-river) draining the pasture (3,587 ha), and two rivers draining a forest (738 and 879 ha) in eastern Hokkaido, northern Japan. During higher river flow due to precipitation and thawing, the concentrations of NO ₃ ⁻ , SO ₄ ²⁻ , K⁺, Fe, and Al increased, suggesting the relative importance of the shallow soil layer as their source. On the other hand, Na⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, and Si decreased, suggesting the relative importance of the source in a deep soil layer. The concentrations of NO ₃ ⁻ , Cl⁻, SO ₄ ²⁻ , K⁺, Na⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, and Fe were higher in the T-river than in the forest drainage waters, suggesting the contribution of the excretion components from the milk cows. The Si concentration exhibited the opposite pattern. The concentrations of NO ₃ ⁻ , Cl⁻, SO ₄ ²⁻ , K⁺, Na⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺ (p<0.001), and Fe (p<0.05) in the T-river decreased after the confluence of the forest drainage waters, while Si concentration increased (p<0.001). The reason for the change in river chemistry was the confluence of the forest drainage waters. These findings suggested the environmental role of the forest in the dilution of the polluted river. Prof. S. Ohata, and Prof. H. Takeda, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, facilitated this study. Prof. T. Sakai, Graduate School of Informatics, Kyoto University, offered this study some convenience. Dr. M. Sakimoto, and Dr. M. Katsuyama, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, offered useful advise.     

美英澳3国雨水管理系统比较与启示

近年来随着城市化的不断加剧及城市不透水面积的增加,中国许多城市正面临较为严重的洪涝灾害以及水资源短缺问题。随着《海绵城市建设技术指南》的发布,我国海绵城市建设被推上日程,如何合理利用雨水资源便显得尤为重要。英美澳3国雨水管理措施已基本完善并初见成效。文中介绍美英澳3国的雨水管理措施,分析雨水管理工程措施及非工程措施产生的原因及地域性差异,例举部分雨水管理措施的应用条件。     

Use of 3-PG and 3-PGS to simulate forest growth dynamics of Australian tropical rainforests: I. Parameterisation and calibration for old-growth,regenerating and plantation forests

Accurate information concerning regional to ecosystem-scale carbon dynamics within tropical rainforests is important because of the increasing certainty that the global climate will change significantly within the next century. Tropical forests of north Queensland, Australia, are highly sensitive to climate change and substantial shifts in the distribution of these forests are likely to occur with minor variations in climate. The focus of this research was the development of a model-based system for assessing forest growth and biomass accumulation dynamics within Australia's tropical rainforest bioregion and predicting the impacts of climate change on these dynamics. This paper presents the parameterisation and calibration of (a) the 3-PG (Physiological Principles Predicting Growth) model to a selection of restored rainforest and commercial timber plantations and (b) a modified version 3-PGS which uses satellite data, enabling the spatial assessment of mature tropical rainforest growth and production throughout the wet tropics bioregion. Statistically significant relationships were observed between 3-PG and 3-PGS modelled and field measured estimates of stand structural attributes including, basal area (BA), diameter at breast height (DBH) and above-ground biomass (AGB) throughout the bioregion. 3-PG and 3-PGS modelled leaf area index (LAI) and net primary production (NPP) related well to published estimates at other similar rainforest sites. These results indicate that the simple, process-based models are effective at capturing the growth dynamics of structurally complex old-growth, restoration and plantation rainforests.