Mating disruption of California red scale,Aonidiella aurantii Maskell (Homoptera: Diaspididae), using biodegradable mesoporous pheromone dispensers

BACKGROUND: The control of California red scale, Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell), has encountered many difficulties, which has raised interest in alternative control methods. Up to now, the A. aurantii sex pheromone has been used only for monitoring. In a previous work the authors described a biodegradable mesoporous pheromone dispenser for mating disruption. To verify the efficacy of these dispensers, three field trials were conducted, and the results are shown in this paper. RESULTS: The study of the release profile of these dispensers revealed a mean pheromone emission value of 269 µg day^?1 and levels of residual pheromone of 10% at the end of 250 days. During the second flight, an A. aurantii male catch reduction of 98% was achieved in the mating disruption plot of trial 1, 93.5% in trial 2 and 76.7% in trial 3. During the third flight, reductions were 94.1, 82.9 and 68.1% in trials 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Considering damaged fruit with more than five scales, reductions of about 80 and 60% were obtained in the mating disruption plots of trials 2 and 3, respectively, compared with an untreated plot, and a reduction of about 70% in trial 1 compared with an oil‐treated plot. CONCLUSION: Mating disruption has been found to be an efficient technique to control this pest, working equally well to a correctly sprayed oil treatment. Further studies are needed to improve the determination of the time of dispenser application and evaluate the effects of the pheromone on natural enemies. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

Development of a pheromone trap monitoring system for orange wheat blossom midge, Sitodiplosis mosellana, in the UK

Field-trapping experiments with synthetic 2,7-nonadiyl dibutyrate, the female-produced sex pheromone of the orange wheat blossom midge, Sitodiplosis mosellana (Géhin), demonstrated that pheromone traps were highly attractive to males and caught very few non-target organisms. Different formulations of pheromone were tested to identify the optimum release rate and dispenser type for use in pheromone traps in the UK. Key findings were that racemic pheromone was as effective as enantiomerically pure (2S,7R)-2,7-nonadiyl dibutyrate, that release rates higher than 0.5 microg day(-1) were not necessary and that the optimal formulation was a 1 mg pheromone loading in a rubber septum. Pheromone traps gave a reliable indication of peak midge emergence, onset of flight and abundance of midges throughout the season. A strong correlation between maximum trap catch and crop infestation levels was obtained.     

Life history parameters and scale-cover surface area of Aonidiella aurantii are altered in a mating disruption environment: implications for biological control

BACKGROUND: In recent years, environmentally safe measures to control the California red scale (CRS), Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell), have been successfully implemented. These measures include mating disruption (MD) and biological control. The goal of this study was to examine the effect of high concentrations of the CRS sex pheromone on its life history parameters and scale‐cover surface area under controlled laboratory conditions. RESULTS: The developmental time of both males and females of CRS increased with exposure to airborne pheromone. MD had an effect on both the total number of progeny and on the crawler production period for females. Accordingly, demographic parameters such as net fecundity (R₀) and intrinsic rate of increase (r_m) were significantly lower in the pheromone‐treated populations. The largest scale‐cover surface areas were observed in the CRS reared in the pheromone environment. CONCLUSION: A clear influence of airborne pheromone on the biology of CRS has been demonstrated. In addition to the classical mating disruption benefits of this technique, additional benefits, such as increase in the duration of exposure to natural enemies and increase in size, which benefits some species of parasitoids, have been confirmed. Copyright © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry     

Sex Pheromone Traps for Monitoring the European Vine Moth,Lobesia botrana: Effect of Dispenser Type,Pheromone Dose,Field Aging of Dispenser,and Type of Trap on Male Captures

The effects of dispenser type, pheromone dose in the dispenser, aging of dispenser in the field, and trap type on trapping efficiency of males of the European vine moth,Lobesia botrana Den. et Schiff. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), were investigated. LB Pherocon caps and locally manufactured septa were equally effective in attracting males to traps. Within the range of 0.1 to 100 μg pheromone/dispenser, response of males increased positively with the pheromone dose. Within the first 7 days tested, pheromone loads of 1 or 10 mg/dispenser were significantly less attractive to males than 0.1 mg/dispenser. The effect of aging of the dispenser (loaded with 1 mg pheromone) in the field on trapping efficiency was significant. Captures in traps baited with 4- and 5-week-old septa were significantly lower (by 24%) than those in traps baited with 1-week-old septa. The fairly slow loss of attractancy exhibited by rubber septa indicates that septa may be kept in traps for at least 5 weeks. The release rate of the pheromone from the Israeli dispensers (1 mg loaded) was measured in a flow system. The emission of the pheromone decreased gradually as a function of age, correlating well with the lower trap catches of field-aged septa. Release rates were reduced by 56%, 70% and 84% after 4, 5 and 6 weeks, repectively. The nonsticky IPS trap was as effective in capturing the European vine moth males as the sticky Pherocon 1C trap. The possibility of using the non-sticky, nonsaturating and easy-to-handle IPS traps may lead to better and easier monitoring of the European vine moth populations.     

Mating disruption for the control of Aonidiella aurantii Maskell (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) may contribute to increased effectiveness of natural enemies

BACKGROUND: New directives on sustainable use of pesticides have encouraged research on efficient alternative pest control methods. In the case of the California red scale (CRS), Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell), this imperative, along with the many difficulties in controlling this pest, have led to the investigation of new approaches. Previously developed mating disruption (MD) dispensers, together with the augmentative releases of the parasitoid Aphytis melinus DeBach, are here considered as a combined strategy for use against A. aurantii. RESULTS: Efficacy of MD was demonstrated by a mean reduction of 80% in CRS male catches and a mean fruit damage reduction of 83% compared with the control. A delay in the development of A. aurantii instars was observed in the MD plot. This delay increased the period of exposure of the susceptible instars to natural enemies, which resulted in higher predation and parasitism levels in the MD plot. Under laboratory conditions, A. melinus mating behaviour and effects on A. aurantii were not significantly altered in a CRS-pheromone-saturated environment. CONCLUSION: Mating disruption pheromone did not affect the behaviour or level of parasitism by A. melinus or the incidence of other generalist predators. Therefore, A. aurantii pheromone appears to be compatible with augmentative releases and biological control, making its use a good strategy for CRS management. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Sex pheromone traps for monitoring the honeydew moth,Cryptoblabes gnidiella: Effect of pheromone components,pheromone dose,field aging of dispenser,and type of trap on male captures

The effects of pheromone components, pheromone dose in the dispenser, aging of dispenser in the field, and trap type on trapping efficiency of males of the honeydew moth,Cryptoblabes gnidiella (Mill.) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), were investigated. At dosages of 2 or 0.2 mg, a binary blend containing (Z)-11-hexadecenal (Z11–16: Aid) and (Z)-13-octadecenal (Z13–18:Ald) (1:1) was as effective in attracting males as a quaternary blend containing Zll-16:Ald, (E)-11-hexadecenal (Ell-16:Ald), Z13–18:Ald and (E)-13-octadecenal (E13–18:Ald), (10:1:10:1). Within the range of 20 to 2000 μg pheromone/dispenser, response of males increased positively with the pheromone dose; however, a load of 10 or 20 mg/dispenser was significantly less attractive to males than 2 mg/dispenser. The effect of aging of the dispenser in the field on trapping efficiency was significant. Captures in traps baited with 3- and 4-week-old septa were lower than those in traps baited with 1- or 2-week-old septa. The gradual loss of attractancy exhibited by rubber septa indicates that septa should be renewed within 2-3 weeks. The release rate of the pheromone was measured in a flow system and monitored with Zl1– 16:Ald only. The emission was almost constant for 18 days and then decreased gradually until the 34th day. The nonsticky IPS trap was as effective in capturing honeydew moth males as the sticky Pherocon 1C trap. The possibility of using the nonsticky, non-saturating and easy-to-handle IPS traps may lead to better and easier monitoring of honeydew moth populations.     

Effects of application rate and interval on the efficacy of sprayable pheromone for mating disruption of the oriental fruit mothGrapholita molesta

The efficacy of microencapsulated sprayable pheromone was evaluated at different application rates and intervals for mating disruption of the oriental fruit moth,Grapholita molesta (Busck), in apple orchards during 2002. The following treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replications: (i) a low rate of pheromone (6.2 g a.i. ha⁻¹) applied at 14-day intervals, (ii) a medium rate of pheromone (12.4 g a.i. ha⁻¹) applied at 28-day intervals, (iii) a high rate of pheromone (24.7 g a.i. ha⁻¹) applied at 28- day intervals, and (iv) a non-pheromone control (insecticides only). The combination of a single insecticide application against first generationG. molesta at petal fall with one pheromone application each for the second, third and fourth generations at 12.4–24.7 g a.i. ha⁻¹ successfully controlled low populations. Pheromone-treated blocks. had significantly lower trap catches than those in the insecticide-treated control blocks. Among pheromone treatments, significantly more moths were caught in the 6.2 g compared with the 12.4 and 24.7 g rates. Fruit damage was <1% at harvest and there were no significant differences among treatments. Low rate frequent applications of sprayable formulation appeared to be effective under low pest pressure but efficacy declined with increasing populations. Further studies are needed to demonstrate the effectiveness of this approach under higher pest pressure. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting July 13, 2005.     

Effects of pheromone loading, dispenser age, and trap height on pheromone trap catches of the oriental fruit moth in apple orchards

The effects of field aging (0–28 days) and pheromone loading rate on the longevity of red rubber septa loaded with the sex pheromone blend of the oriental fruit mothGrapholita molesta (Busck), were evaluated in North Carolina apple orchards in 2002. Separate field tests examined the influence of trap height and pheromone loading rate of rubber septa on trap catches of adultG. molesta males in an abandoned orchard. The loss of the major pheromone component, (Z)-8-dodecenyl acetate (Z8–12:OAc), from red rubber septa over a 4-week period exhibited a relatively constant release rate with 30, 100 and 300 μg pheromone. Trap catch was significantly higher in pheromone traps placed in the upper canopy than in those in the lower canopy. Pheromone traps baited with 100μg lures caught more moths compared with those loaded with 300 μg. There was no apparent relationship between pheromone trap catch and septa age, with trap catch appearing to be primarily a function ofG. molesta population density. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting May 14, 2006.     

Studies on the development of a mating disruption system to control the tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta Povolny (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)

BACKGROUND: The tomato leafminer (Tuta absoluta Povolny) has rapidly colonised the whole Mediterranean and South‐Atlantic coasts of Spain, and it has become a key problem in both outdoor and greenhouse crops. New control methods compatible with biological control are required, and mating disruption appears to be a perfect method in current agriculture, as it is an environmentally friendly and residue‐free technique. IPM packages tested have included the use of pheromones to detect populations, but there has not been much previous research on mating disruption of T. absoluta. In this work, pheromone doses varying from 10 to 40 g ha^?1, emitted at a constant rate over 4 months, were tested in greenhouses with different levels of containment in order to evaluate the efficacy of mating disruption on T. absoluta. RESULTS: Trials on containment level revealed that the flight of T. absoluta was satisfactorily disrupted with an initial pheromone dose of 30 g ha^?1, and levels of damage did not significantly differ from those in reference plots with insecticide treatments. Later efficacy trials confirmed previous experiences, and release studies showed that control of damage and flight disruption were taking place when releasing at least 85 mg pheromone per ha per day. CONCLUSION: Effective control using pheromone application against T. absoluta can be achieved, in greenhouses with high containment levels, for 4 months, with initial doses of 30 g ha^?1. Further research must be conducted in order to evaluate the prospect of outdoor application of mating disruption systems. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Regional differences in pheromone responses of diamondback moth in Indonesia

Trap captures with two‐ and three‐component blends of synthetic sex pheromone for the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella L. (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae), were assessed in Indonesia. In West Java, the two‐component blend containing 10g of (Z)‐11‐hexadecen‐1‐ol acetate and (Z)‐11‐hexadecena| in a 4:6 ratio captured the greatest number of diamondback moths. Three and five virgin females were more attractive than the two‐component lures, which were as attractive as lures that also contained (Z)‐9‐tetradecen‐1‐ol acetate. In North Sulawesi, a 100 g dose of the two‐component blend attracted more males than the 10 g dose but was not significantly more potent than five virgin females. These results suggests that pheromone production and bioactivity should be assessed in separate populations prior to attempts to develop pheromone‐based monitoring or mating disruption programmes.     

Sex pheromone traps for detecting and monitoring the raisin moth,cadra figulilella,in date palm plantations

Field tests were carried out to determine whether pheromone traps, baited with (Z,E)-9,12-tetradecadienyl acetate (Z9,E12-14:Ac) impregnated in rubber septa (Maavit, Israel), could provide a reliable tool for monitoring the raisin moth,Cadra figulilella (Gregson), in date palm plantations. No significant differences were detected between captures of males in traps baited with 1 or 10 mg pheromone/dispenser. However, traps baited with 1 mg pheromone captured significantly more males than those baited with 0.1 mg pheromone/dispenser. No differences were found between captures of males in traps hung at a height of 8 m (near the bunches) or 2–3 m (on palm trunks). Two peaks of male capture were detected, one in May-June and the other during September-October (ripening period). Results indicate a positive relationship between captures in traps and infestation levels by larvae. Pheromone traps baited with 1 mg Z9,E12–14:Ac impregnated in rubber septa and hung on palm trunks (at a height of 2–3 m), were very useful for monitoringC. figulilella populations and for determining the accurate timing of insecticide applications.     

Attract-and-kill strategy. Laboratory studies on hatched larvae of Culex pipiens

The attract‐and‐kill strategy is a new pest management technique that presupposes the intelligent combination of an attracting agent (e.g. pheromone) and a killing agent (e.g. insecticide). In the present study, the potential combination of the microencapsulated synthetic oviposition pheromone 6‐acetoxy‐5‐hexadecanolide with an insecticide has been tested. Initially, polyurea microcapsules containing 6‐acetoxy‐5‐hexadecanolide, the synthetic mixture of diastereomers of the oviposition pheromone of the mosquito species Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae), were studied. Laboratory bioassays were performed to confirm the bioactivity of the microencapsulated pheromone on the oviposition activity of Culex pipiens L. biotype molestus Førskal (Diptera: Culicidae) with the aim of determining the optimum dose for oviposition response. Its effect was dose dependent, revealing an optimum dose of 300 mg of dried microcapsules. Attractancy over time was also studied. The microencapsulated pheromone was found to be sufficiently attractive to gravid female mosquitoes for a period of 40 days. Finally, the combination of the synthetic pheromone with the control agent temephos showed both an acceptable oviposition activity and sufficient larvicidal effect. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

Optimization of pheromone trapping method for click beetles (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Agriotes</Emphasis> spp.) in Greece

Field studies were performed to survey and monitor Agriotes spp. (Coleoptera: Elateridae) click beetles in Greece. A pitfall type trap made of durable plastic and loaded with pheromone lures for different Agriotes species was employed in field sites in 2006 and 2007. The diversity of Agriotes species in arable crops in central Greece seems to be rather limited. The two species trapped in this study, A. rufipalpis and A. litigiosus, had quite different temporal patterns. In both years A. rufipalpis was captured in high numbers, beginning early in the spring and declining progressively later on. In 2006 but not in 2007, there were A. rufipalpis trap captures in early summer. Trap captures for A. litigiosus remained at low levels in both fields and only in mid-summer was there an increase in the number of adult captures. Pheromone dose had a significant effect in trap captures for both species, whereas old baits and new ones were equally attractive. The simple trap used in the present study loaded with the optimal pheromone and dose would be suitable for surveying and monitoring and even mass trapping of click beetles.     

(Z)-3-hexenyl acetate and 1-undecanol increase male attraction to sex pheromone trap in Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

The effects of host-plant volatiles (HPVs) on male oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), and response to sex pheromone trap were studied in a pear orchard. Two HPVs compounds, (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate and 1-undecanol, combined with sex pheromone of G. molesta in traps were tested. The results showed that most of the male moths were captured in the traps baited with the sex pheromone combined with these two HPVs compounds than by the pheromone alone. Also, more males were captured by the trap containing pheromone plus (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate than by the one containing 1-undecanol. It appeared that these HPVs act as sex pheromone synergists to enhance the attraction of male G. molestato pheromone traps, since males were not captured in the traps baited only with (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate and/or 1-undecanol.     

Seasonal abundance of different stages of the citrus thrips,Scirtothrips aurantii, on two mango cultivars in South Africa

The citrus thrips,Scirtothrips aurantii Faure (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), is a pest of mango in South Africa. The aim of the study was to monitor the different stages ofS. aurantii in mango orchards throughout the year. Populations ofS. aurantii were monitored using different methods,i.e., yellow sticky traps, dispersal/emergence traps, counts on fruit and in flowers. Eggs and emergence holes on the new leaves were recorded. The number of adults increased at the end of flowering (September) and remained at high levels until fruiting (November). Low numbers were present from May to August. Much higher population levels were present during 1995/96 than during the 1996/97 season. There was higher infestation present on the cultivar ‘Sensation’ than on ‘Zill’.S. aurantii was present on the fruit for only a short period (less than 10 weeks) during the season and the population was maintained on flush that was present throughout the year.     

柑橘衰退病毒含量对其蚜传效率的影响

为明确毒源植株和蚜虫中柑橘衰退病毒(Citrus tristeza virus,CTV)的发生情况与蚜虫传播CTV能力的关系,将褐色橘蚜、棉蚜、橘二叉蚜和绣线菊蚜置于分别感染了4个CTV分离株的锦橙上取食24 h后,运用巢式RT-PCR和实时RT-PCR检测蚜虫和锦橙的带毒情况,并分析蚜虫的传毒能力。结果显示,蚜虫中CTV的平均带毒率为0.76~0.84,其中棉蚜的最高,其次为绣线菊蚜、褐色橘蚜和橘二叉蚜。锦橙中各CTV分离株的含量差异不大,与蚜虫传毒效率间无显著相关性;也未发现蚜虫带毒率与其传播CTV能力之间存在相关性。蚜虫体内CTV的含量为5.36×103±2.33×103~2.01×106±3.67×105拷贝,褐色橘蚜中含量最高,其次为棉蚜、橘二叉蚜和绣线菊蚜;且高蚜传能力CTV分离株在褐色橘蚜体内的含量远高于低蚜传能力分离株。表明蚜虫体内CTV的含量可能与蚜虫传毒能力有关。     

Attract‐and‐kill: a new strategy for the management of the potato tuber moths Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) and Symmetrischema tangolias (Gyen) in potato: laboratory experiments towards optimising pheromone and insecticide concentration

BACKGROUND: Sex pheromones of the potato tuber moths Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) and Symmetrischema tangolias (Gyen) are ideal tools to monitor pest flight activity but are not used as means of control. The aim of the present study was to test the suitability of an attract‐and‐kill strategy consisting of pure pheromones and the contact insecticide cyfluthrin as the active ingredient, formulated with plant oils and ultraviolet absorbers, and applied in droplet sizes of 100 µL. RESULTS: Cyfluthrin at a concentration of 5 g L^?1 resulted in the highest and fastest killing of males after 48 h, with a 100% mortality after 3–4 days. In contrast, control males survived for 13 days. In olfactometer experiments, the pheromone concentration of 0.5 g L^?1 was significantly most attractive against eight virgin females. At controlled conditions (20 °C), no reduction in efficacy of the attract‐and‐kill formulation was observed for a minimum period of 36 days, whereas under natural environmental conditions the efficacy reduced gradually after day 6 of exposure. The longer the droplet was exposed, the longer was the time to reach 100% mortality of males. CONCLUSIONS: Compared with attract‐and‐kill studies for other pest species, the results are promising as a means of achieving highly effective control of potato tuber moths under field conditions. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

Mobile mating disruption of light-brown apple moths using pheromone-treated sterile Mediterranean fruit flies

BACKGROUND: Public opposition to aerial application of sex pheromone for mating disruption of light‐brown apple moth (LBAM), Epiphyas postvittana (Walk.), in California stopped its further use in the ca $ 74 million eradication programme in 2008, underscoring the need for other eradication tactics. It is demonstrated that pheromone‐treated sterile Mediterranean fruit flies (medflies), Ceratitis capitata Wied., can disrupt communication in male moths. RESULTS: Medflies topically dosed with moth pheromone (E)‐11‐tetradecenyl acetate showed a no observed effect level (NOEL) of ～10 µg fly^?1, with increasing toxicity from 30 to 100 µg fly^?1. Greater potency and longevity of attraction and lower mortality were achieved using microencapsulated pheromone. Releases of 1000 pheromone‐treated medflies ha^?1 prevented male moth catch to synthetic lures in treated 4 ha plots for 1 day in suburban Perth, Australia. Releases of ca 3000 pheromone‐treated medflies ha^?1 disrupted catch to single female moths in delta traps, and to synthetic pheromone lures. Percentage disruption on the first four nights was 95, 91, 82 and 85%. CONCLUSIONS: Disruption of moth catch using pheromone‐treated medflies is a novel development that, with future improvement, might provide a socially acceptable approach for application of the insect mating disruption technique to control invasive insects in urban environments. Adequacy of payload and other issues require resolution. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Plant volatile compounds shorten reaction time and enhance attraction of the codling moth (Cydia pomonella) to codlemone

BACKGROUND: The codling moth is the most serious pest of deciduous tree fruit (apples, pears, crabapples, walnuts, quince) worldwide. The high frequency of insecticide treatments per season has resulted in breakdown of codling moth control owing to insecticide resistance. As an alternative, integrated pest management includes mating disruption to achieve population suppression in orchards. Under this scheme, the sex pheromone of the codling moth, (E, E)‐8,10‐dodecadien‐1‐ol (codlemone), is released from dispensers in crops to hinder mating by luring males. Increasing the attractiveness of codlemone formulations to codling moth males can be regarded as a key to increasing the efficacy of mating disruption. With this aim, the effects of adding plant volatiles on the behavioural responses of codling moth males to codlemone were tested. RESULTS: Adding R(+)‐limonene, linalool, (E)‐β‐farnesene or ethyl (E, Z)‐2,4‐decadienoate to codlemone significantly increases the proportion of males flying to the pheromone source in a wind tunnel. The response level is equivalent to that of males responding to females releasing codlemone. Using real‐time recordings, it is shown how these four plant products also shorten the response time of males to codlemone under the behavioural criteria time to activation, time till upwind flight is induced and time to pheromone source contact. CONCLUSION: Shortening the response time and increasing source location by males of dispensers releasing codlemone with R(+)‐limonene, linalool, (E)‐β‐farnesene or ethyl (E, Z)‐2,4‐decadienoate added would enhance mating disruption through better engagement of males with dispensers, to the detriment of females. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Field evaluation of synthetic sex pheromone traps for the cocoa mirid Sahlbergella singularis (Hemiptera: Miridae)

BACKGROUND: Field trapping experiments were conducted to evaluate the attractiveness of five different pheromone blends as well as the impact of trap design on attractiveness towards cocoa mirids, Sahlbergella singularis Hagl. and Distantiella theobroma (Dist.), in Cameroon. RESULTS: A total of 361 adults of S. singularis (359 males and two females) were caught. The highest numbers of mirids were found in traps with pheromone blends that combined a monoester and a diester, compared with traps with the diester or the monoester individually and control traps with no pheromone. Rectangular traps caught significantly more mirids compared with delta traps. The mean number of 5.1 mirids trap^?1 year^?1 caught in rectangular traps was significantly higher compared with the 1.8 mirids trap^?1 year^?1 for the delta traps. CONCLUSION: The data revealed that rectangular traps containing pheromone blends combining both the monoester and the diester have a good potential to lure and trap adult males of S. singularis on cocoa farms. The pheromone blends used were specific for S. singularis, and the use of pheromone traps appears to be a promising strategy for incorporation into integrated pest management strategies for the monitoring or even the control of S. singularis in cocoa plantations. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry