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1.
Key issues and research priorities in landscape ecology: An idiosyncratic synthesis 总被引:46,自引:41,他引:46
Landscape ecology has made tremendous progress in recent decades, but as a rapidly developing discipline it is faced with
new problems and challenges. To identify the key issues and research priorities in landscape ecology, a special session entitled
“Top 10 List for Landscape Ecology in the 21st Century” was organized at the 16th Annual Symposium of the US Regional Association
of International Association of Landscape Ecology, held at Arizona State University (Tempe, Arizona, USA) during April 25–29,
2001. A group of leading landscape ecologists were invited to present their views. This paper is intended to be a synthesis,
but not necessarily a consensus, of the special session. We have organized the diverse and wide-ranging perspectives into
six general key issues and 10 priority research topics. The key issues are: (1) interdisciplinarity or transdisciplinarity,
(2) integration between basic research and applications,(3) Conceptual and theoretical development, (4) education and training,
(5)international scholarly communication and collaborations, and (6) outreach and communication with the public and decision
makers. The top 10 research topics are: (1) ecological flows in landscape mosaics, (2) causes, processes, and consequences
of land use and land cover change, (3) nonlinear dynamics and landscape complexity, (4) scaling, (5) methodological development,
(6) relating landscape metrics to ecological processes, (7) integrating humans and their activities into landscape ecology,
(8) optimization of landscape pattern, (9)landscape sustainability, and (10) data acquisition and accuracy assessment. We
emphasize that, although this synthesis was based on the presentations at the“Top 10 List” session, it is not a document that
has been agreed upon by each and every participant. Rather, we believe that it is reflective of the broad-scale vision of
the collective as to where landscape ecology is now and where it may be going in future.
This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
2.
Although the importance of biodiversity conservation has been acknowledged in urban landscapes of many forest, desert, and coastal biomes, urbanization in grasslands and its negative/positive impacts on biodiversity is understudied. We designed a pilot, spatio-temporal study to envision the impacts of land-use and vegetation change on the composition and configuration of grasslands in urban landscapes of the Upper Missouri River Basin under four climate-change scenarios (A1B, A2, B1, and B2) from 2020 to 2070 with respect to the IPCC’s high-level and mid-level Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP 8.5 w/m2 and RCP 4.5 w/m2). We show that under the most climate-change scenarios, the rate of grassland conversion into other land cover classes from 2020 to 2070 was greater in urban landscapes than the whole region but this trend was not correlated with urban expansion. Conversely, habitat proximity was negatively correlated with urban expansion. The capacity of habitat patches to function as wildlife refugia in urban landscapes was substantially greater under the B2 scenario, where social equality and environmental conservation are highly prioritized. On the basis of the results of this study, we demonstrate that measuring the changes in the composition and configuration of habitat patches, combined with an understanding of the rate of grassland conversion can provide more detailed information about opportunities and limitations for biodiversity conservation in this region and beyond. If managed strategically, urban landscapes can play a positive role in conserving biodiversity and preserving ecosystems in regions predominantly used for agricultural lands. 相似文献
3.
This collaborative essay grows out of a debate about the relationship between aesthetics and ecology and the possibility of
an “ecological aesthetic” that affects landscape planning, design, and management. We describe our common understandings and
unresolved questions about this relationship, including the importance of aesthetics in understanding and affecting landscape
change and the ways in which aesthetics and ecology may have either complementary or contradictory implications for a landscape.
To help understand these issues, we first outline a conceptual model of the aesthetics–ecology relationship. We posit that:
1. While human and environmental phenomena occur at widely varying scales, humans engage with environmental phenomena at a
particular scale: that of human experience of our landscape surroundings. That is the human “perceptible realm.”
2. Interactions within this realm give rise to aesthetic experiences, which can lead to changes affecting humans and the landscape,
and thus ecosystems.
3. Context affects aesthetic experience of landscapes. Context includes both effects of different landscape types (wild, agricultural,
cultural, and metropolitan landscapes) and effects of different personal–social situational activities or concerns. We argue
that some contexts elicit aesthetic experiences that have traditionally been called “scenic beauty,” while other contexts
elicit different aesthetic experiences, such as perceived care, attachment, and identity.
Last, we discuss how interventions through landscape planning, design, and management; or through enhanced knowledge might
establish desirable relationships between aesthetics and ecology, and we examine the controversial characteristics of such
ecological aesthetics. While these interventions may help sustain beneficial landscape patterns and practices, they are inherently
normative, and we consider their ethical implications. 相似文献
4.
Design in science: extending the landscape ecology paradigm 总被引:2,自引:7,他引:2
Landscape ecological science has produced knowledge about the relationship between landscape pattern and landscape processes,
but it has been less effective in transferring this knowledge to society. We argue that design is a common ground for scientists
and practitioners to bring scientific knowledge into decision making about landscape change, and we therefore propose that
the pattern–process paradigm should be extended to include a third part: design. In this context, we define design as any
intentional change of landscape pattern for the purpose of sustainably providing ecosystem services while recognizably meeting
societal needs and respecting societal values. We see both the activity of design and the resulting design pattern as opportunities
for science: as a research method and as topic of research. To place design within landscape ecology science, we develop an
analytic framework based on the concept of knowledge innovation, and we apply the framework to two cases in which design has
been used as part of science. In these cases, design elicited innovation in society and in science: the design concept was
incorporated in societal action to improve landscape function, and it also initiated scientific questions about pattern–process
relations. We conclude that landscape design created collaboratively by scientists and practitioners in many disciplines improves
the impact of landscape science in society and enhances the saliency and legitimacy of landscape ecological scientific knowledge. 相似文献
5.
Surface metrics: an alternative to patch metrics for the quantification of landscape structure 总被引:3,自引:3,他引:3
Modern landscape ecology is based on the patch mosaic paradigm, in which landscapes are conceptualized and analyzed as mosaics
of discrete patches. While this model has been widely successful, there are many situations where it is more meaningful to
model landscape structure based on continuous rather than discrete spatial heterogeneity. The growing field of surface metrology
offers a variety of surface metrics for quantifying landscape gradients, yet these metrics are largely unknown and/or unused
by landscape ecologists. In this paper, we describe a suite of surface metrics with potential for landscape ecological application.
We assessed the redundancy among metrics and sought to find groups of similarly behaved metrics by examining metric performance
across 264 sample landscapes in western Turkey. For comparative purposes and to evaluate the robustness of the observed patterns,
we examined 16 different patch mosaic models and 18 different landscape gradient models of landscape structure. Surface metrics
were highly redundant, but less so than patch metrics, and consistently aggregated into four cohesive clusters of similarly
behaved metrics representing surface roughness, shape of the surface height distribution, and angular and radial surface texture.
While the surface roughness metrics have strong analogs among the patch metrics, the other surface components are largely
unique to landscape gradients. We contend that the surface properties we identified are nearly universal and have potential
to offer new insights into landscape pattern–process relationships.
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. 相似文献
6.
We used a combination of two models, DISTRIB and SHIFT, to estimate potential migration of five tree species into suitable habitat due to climate change over the next 100 years. These species, currently confined to the eastern half of the United States and not extending into Canada, are Diospyros virginiana (persimmon), Liquidambar styraciflua (sweetgum), Oxydendrum arboreum (sourwood), Pinus taeda (loblolly pine), and Quercus falcata var. falcata (southern red oak). DISTRIB uses a statistical approach to assess potential suitable habitat under equilibrium of 2 × CO2. SHIFT uses a cellular automata approach to estimate migration and is driven primarily by the abundance of the species near the boundary, forest density inside and outside of the boundary, and distance between cells. For each cell outside the current boundary, SHIFT creates an estimate of the probability that each unoccupied target cell will become colonized over 100 years. By evaluating the probability of colonization within the potential ‘new’ suitable habitat, we can estimate the proportion of new habitat that might be colonized within a century. This proportion is low (<15%) for all five species, suggesting that there is a serious lag between the potential movement of suitable habitat and the potential for the species to migrate into the new habitat. However, humans could hasten the migration of certain species by physically moving the propagules, especially for certain rare species that are unable to move sufficiently through fragmented landscapes, or even more common species, e.g., beech, that have lost many of their animal dispersers. 相似文献
7.
Two hundred years of landscape changes were studied on a 3,760 ha area of central Corsica (France) representing a typical Mediterranean environment. Different historical sources, including an accurate land-cover map from 1774 and statistics on land cover from 1848 and 1913, were used. Three additional maps (1960, 1975 and 1990) were drawn, and a complete fire history from 1957 to 1997 was created. Forests expanded slowly by a border effect. Forest expansion was more rapid in unburnt sites (0.59% per year) than in burnt sites (0.23% per year), mostly because the initial amount of forests was greater. Because of the border effect, the combination of past landscape pattern and short distance colonization abilities of forest species may have allowed the shrublands to persist in some places after land abandonment. This persistence may explain the pattern of fire in the landscape, since shrubland burn more readily than forests. 相似文献
8.
Bruno Di Lena Daniela Farinelli Alberto Palliotti Stefano Poni Theodore M. DeJong 《The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology》2018,93(2):209-215
Climate warming is causing an advance of the latest spring frosts and a consequent decrease of spring freeze risk during flowering. Cultivation areas of early blooming tree crops, such as almond, could be shifted pole-ward as consequence of global warming. On the other hand, warming winters and springs can cause an advance of the flowering period. The aim of the present work was to estimate which was the impact of climate change in the past six decades on the spring freeze damage risk during the almond blooming period in the Abruzzo region of Italy. According to our analysis a reduction of spring freeze risk due to the mitigation of springtime temperatures was counterbalanced by advanced almond blooming leaving the risk of spring freeze damage unchanged. These results suggest that the adaptation of almond phenology to changing climates could continue to limit the northward expansion of almond in Italy. Finally, these results may suggest that the loss of suitable areas due to loss of chilling units in the warmest climate areas cannot be compensated for by a pole-ward shift of almond plantings. 相似文献
9.
Frank Jauker Tim Diekötter Franziska Schwarzbach Volkmar Wolters 《Landscape Ecology》2009,24(4):547-555
Semi-natural habitats provide essential resources for pollinators within agricultural landscapes and may help maintain pollination
services in agroecosystems. Yet, whether or not pollinators disperse from semi-natural habitat elements into the adjacent
agricultural matrix may to a large extent depend on the quality of this matrix and the corresponding pollinator-specific life
history traits. To investigate the effects of matrix quality on the distance decay of wild bees and hoverflies, six transects
along vegetated field tracks originating at a large semi-natural main habitat and leading into the adjacent agricultural matrix
were established in the Wetterau Region, central Hesse, Germany. Species richness of wild bees did not change with distance
from the main habitat in landscapes with sufficient grassland cover in the surrounding landscape, but significantly declined
when semi-natural grasslands where scarce and isolated in the adjacent agricultural matrix. Abundance of wild bees declined
with distance regardless of matrix quality. Species richness of hoverflies did not decline with increasing distance in any
landscape. Abundance even increased with distance to the main habitat independently of matrix quality. Thus, our data show
that taxa of the pollinator guild may perceive landscapes quite differently. Because of their differing dispersal modes and
resource requirements as compared to wild bees, hoverflies may play an important role in maintaining pollination services
in agricultural landscapes unsuitable for bee species. Our results highlight the need for considering these taxon-specific
differences when predicting the effect of landscape structure on pollinators.
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. 相似文献
10.
Landscape ecology as a theoretical basis for nature conservation 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Conservation of representative biotopes, single species populations or biodiversity usually embraces two or more biotopes, and is often affected by surrounding croplands. The conclusions from landscape ecological studies can, therefore, offer important contributions to conservation, especially at early levels of landscape change or habitat fragmentation. Indicator and keystone species are useful for monitoring and managing fragmented biotopes, respectively. Communities as well as single species are affected by the juxtaposition of successional and climax biotopes, which influence climatic equability, seasonality, productivity and dispersal. Low levels of fragmentation may result in ill-functioning communities, and greater fragmentation may result in species losses and ultimately in the loss of whole communities. Fragmented habitats retain species with high reproductive and dispersal rates and generalized habitat selection. New combinations of interacting species will lead to trivialization of earlier habitat-specific interactions. Validation of these concepts was made with data from a Swedish research program on fragmented biotopes in production landscapes. General reserve selection and methods of management for preserving climax communities, single specialized species and high biodiversity are suggested. 相似文献
11.
Sensitivity of landscape pattern indices to input data characteristics on real landscapes: implications for their use in natural disturbance emulation 总被引:17,自引:6,他引:11
Baldwin David J. B. Weaver Kevin Schnekenburger Frank Perera Ajith H. 《Landscape Ecology》2004,19(3):255-271
Resource management strategies have begun to adopt natural landscape disturbance emulation as a means of minimizing risk to ecosystem integrity. Detailed understanding of the disturbance regime and the associated spatial landscape patterns are required to provide a natural baseline for comparison with the results of emulation strategies. Landscape pattern indices provide a useful tool to quantify spatial pattern for developing these strategies and evaluating their success. Despite an abundance of indices and tools to calculate these, practical knowledge of interpretation is rare. Quantifying changes in landscape pattern indices and the meaning of these changes is confounded by index sensitivity to input data characteristics such as spatial extent, spatial resolution, and thematic resolution. Sensitivity has been examined for simulated landscapes but rarely using real data for large areas as real landscapes are more difficult to manipulate systematically than simulated data. While simulated data offer a control, they do not provide an accurate portrayal of reality for practical applications. Our goal was to test the sensitivity of a suite of landscape pattern indices useful for disturbance emulation strategy development and evaluation to spatial extent, spatial resolution, and thematic resolution using current land cover data for a case study of the managed forest of Ontario, Canada. We also examined how sensitivity varies spatially across the study area. We used Landsat TM-based land cover data (> 45.5 million ha), controlling spatial extent (2,500 to 2,560,000 ha), spatial resolution (1 to 16 ha), and thematic resolution (2 to 26 classes). For each index we tested a hypothesis of insensitivity to changes in each input data characteristic using a combination of ANOVA and regression and compared our results with previous studies. Of the 18 indices studied, significant (p< 0.01) effects were found for 17 indices with changes in spatial extent, 13 indices with changes in spatial resolution and 18 indices with changes in thematic resolution. A significant (p < 0.01) linear trend accounted for the majority of the variance for all of the significant relationships identified. Most of the mean index responses were consistent with those interpreted from previous studies of simulated and real landscapes; however, sensitivity varied greatly among indices and over space. We suggest that variation in sensitivity to input data characteristics among indices and over space must be explicitly incorporated in the design of future natural disturbance emulation efforts.This revised version was published online in May 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
12.
13.
Morteza Asgarzadeh Kourosh Vahdati Mahmoud Lotfi Mostafa Arab Alireza Babaei Farzaneh Naderi Mohammad Pir Soufi Ghazaleh Rouhani 《Urban Forestry & Urban Greening》2014,13(3):450-458
Choosing appropriate plants for urban landscapes is vital to avoid potential financial and environmental losses that may occur if all selection parameters are not taken into account. A methodology has been developed to assist landscape architects, planting designers, and urban horticulturists in the plant selection process. Tehran has been picked as a case study due to its arid and semi-arid climate which poses more challenges in front of an expert. After grouping plants, selection parameters have been defined for each plant group. Plant species were comparatively graded for each parameter by a group of eight specialists. Analytical hierarchy process (AHP) technique and hierarchical cluster analysis have been utilized to find the most adaptable plant species for the area according to the main selection parameters of zone tolerance, urban conditions, esthetics, maintenance, growth characteristics, and specific features. Several new plants were ranked high in the final tables suggesting that the urban landscape of Tehran has a great potential to become more attractive, less allergic, and less costly, as well as consuming less water. Before introducing new plants to the urban environment, they should be experimented on in small numbers for several years to confirm that they will not change the ecology of the whole region through invasion or posing a threat to any local plant species. 相似文献
14.
A cooperative project between the International Rice Research Institute in Los Baños, Philippines, and the U.S. EPA Environmental Research Laboratory in Corvallis, Oregon, was initiated to estimate how rice yield in Asia might be affected by future climate change and enhanced UV-B irradiance following stratospheric ozone depletion. A radiative transfer model was used to estimate daily UV-B irradiance levels using remotely sensed ozone and cloud cover data for 1274 meteorological stations. A rice yield model using daily climatic data and cultivar-specific coefficients was used to predict changes in yield under given climate change scenarios. This paper gives an overview of the data required to run these two models and describes how a geographical information system (GIS) was used as a data pre- or postprocessor. Problems in finding reliable datasets such as cloud cover data needed for the UV-B radiation model and radiation data needed for the rice yield model are discussed. Issues of spatial and temporal scales are also addressed. Using simulation models at large spatial scales helped identify weaknesses of GIS data overlay and interpolation capabilities. Even though we focussed our efforts on paddy rice, the database is not intended to be system specific and could also be used to analyze the response of other natural systems to climatic change. 相似文献
15.
Accessibility as a determinant of landscape transformation in western Honduras: linking pattern and process 总被引:11,自引:2,他引:11
This study evaluates the relationship between landscape accessibility and land cover change in Western Honduras, and demonstrates
how these relationships are influenced by social and economic processes of land use change in the region. The study area presents
a complex mosaic of land cover change processes that involve approximately equal amounts of reforestation and deforestation.
Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) satellite imagery of 1987, 1991 and 1996 was used to create three single date classifications
and a land cover change image depicting the sequence of changes in land cover between 1987–1991–1996. An accessibility analysis
examined land cover change and landscape fragmentation relative to elevation and distance from roads. Between 1987 and 1991,
results follow ‘expected’ trends, with more accessible areas experiencing greater deforestation and fragmentation. Between
1991 and 1996 this trend reverses. Increased deforestation is found in areas distant from roads, and at higher elevations;
a result of government policies promoting expansion of mountain coffee production for export. A ban on logging, and abandonment
of marginally productive agricultural fields due to agricultural intensification in other parts of the landscape, has led
to increased regrowth in accessible regions of the landscape. Roads and elevation also present different obstacles in terms
of their accessibility, with the smallest patches of cyclical clearing and regrowth, relating mostly to the agricultural fallow
cycle, found at the highest elevations but located close to roads. This research highlights the need to locate analyses of
land cover change within the context of local socio-economic policies and land use processes.
This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
16.
Tradable biodiversity credit systems provide flexible means to resolve conflicts between development and conservation land-use
options for habitats occupied by threatened or endangered species. We describe an approach to incorporate the influence of
habitat fragmentation into the conservation value of tradable credits. Habitat fragmentation decreases gene flow, increases
rates of genetic drift and inbreeding, and increases probabilities of patch extinction. Importantly, tradable credit systems
will change the level of fragmentation over time for small and/or declining populations. We apply landscape equivalency analysis
(LEA), a generalizable, landscape-scale accounting system that assigns conservation value to habitat patches based on patch
contributions to abundance and genetic variance at landscape scales. By evaluating habitat trades using two models that vary
the relationship between dispersal behaviors and landscape patterns, we show that LEA provides a novel method for limiting
access to habitat at the landscape-scale, recognizing that the appropriate amount of migration needed to supplement patch
recruitment and to offset drift and inbreeding will vary as landscape pattern changes over time. We also found that decisions
based on probabilities of persistence alone would ignore changes in migration, genetic drift, and patch extinction that result
from habitat trades. The general principle of LEA is that habitat patches traded should make at least equivalent contributions
to rates of recruitment and migration estimated at a landscape scale. Traditional approaches for assessing the “take” and
“jeopardy” standards under the Endangered Species Act based on changes in abundance and probability of persistence may be
inadequate to prevent trades that increase fragmentation. 相似文献
17.
Valérie Viaud Hervé Monod Claire Lavigne Frédérique Angevin Katarzyna Adamczyk 《Landscape Ecology》2008,23(9):1067-1079
Pollen dispersal is a critical process defining connectivity among plant populations. In the context of genetically modified
(GM) crops in conventional agricultural systems, strategies based on spatial separation are promoted to reduce functional
connectivity between GM and non-GM crop fields. Field experiments as well as simulation studies have stressed the dependence
of maize gene flow on distances between source and receptor fields and on their spatial configuration. However, the influence
of whole landscape patterns is still poorly understood. Spatially explicit models, such as MAPOD-maize, are thus useful tools
to address this question. In this paper we developed a methodological approach to investigate the sensitivity of cross-pollination
rates among GM and non-GM maize in a landscape simulated with MAPOD-maize. The influence of landscape pattern on model output
was studied at the landscape and field scales, including interactions with other model inputs such as cultivar characteristics
and wind conditions. At the landscape scale, maize configuration (proportion of and spatial arrangement in a given field pattern)
was shown to be an important factor influencing cross-pollination rate between GM and non-GM maize whereas the effect of the
field pattern itself was lower. At the field scale, distance to the nearest GM maize field was confirmed as a predominant
factor explaining cross-pollination rate. The metrics describing the pattern of GM maize in the area surrounding selected
non-GM maize fields appeared as pertinent complementary variables. In contrast, field geometry and field pattern resulted
in little additional information at this scale.
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. 相似文献
18.
Urban greening has rapidly emerged as a key urban climate change adaptation strategy. Urban greening is thought to confer manifold socio-ecological benefits upon residents in towns and cities. Yet proponents of urban greening have seldom considered how people’s support for greening policies may be shaped by weather and climate. This paper reports the results of exploratory research examining public expectations of adverse weather changes and people’s attitudes toward the functional benefits of urban trees and green space. Results of a questionnaire survey of 800 residents of Hong Kong indicate a positive relationship. Respondents tended to rate functional benefits as more important if they anticipated adverse weather changes in the near future, namely, rising temperatures, more tropical cyclones and prolonged rain. This subjective weather effect is more salient when these weather changes are perceived as a threat to one’s daily life. We found urban greenery is assigned a higher value by individuals concerned about exposure and vulnerability to climatic stressors. Affinity for greening appears to be related to how weather and climatic variability is perceived. This observation is informed by a broader geographic perspective, which construes weather and climate as part of the spatial environment in which urban nature is apprehended and comprehended. An explanation for our findings is that increasingly volatile weather can potentially reshape urban residents’ interactions with nature, based on perceived relief and/or protection from climate-related threats. 相似文献
19.
Urban green infrastructure (UGI) has been increasingly promoted as a key measure to mitigate heat stress in cities caused by the urban heat island effect and climate change impacts, including climate variability and extremes. However, comparable information concerning the performance of different UGI types to moderate such impacts is mostly lacking. This creates serious challenges for urban planners who need to decide on the most effective measures while considering spatial and administrative constraints. This study investigates how different types and quantities of UGI, i.e. trees, green roofs, and green facades, affect pedestrian thermal comfort. The study was applied to high-density residential areas under current and future climatic conditions. Climate change will on average increase afternoon Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET) values by 2.4 K; however, this could be vastly reduced by different UGI scenarios. Planting trees had the strongest impact with an average PET reduction of 13% compared with existing vegetation. Trees shade open spaces and provide evapotranspirative cooling. Another valuable adaptation option is green facades, which have mitigating effects of 5%–10%. In contrast, the effects of green roofs were negligible. Our results indicate that increasing the share of green cover did not directly correspond to the magnitude of the PET reduction. Placing vegetation strategically in heat-exposed areas is more effective than just aiming at a high percentage of green cover. We conclude that our extensive comparative analysis provides empirical evidence to support UGI on the micro-scale and assists planners and decision-makers to effectively select and prioritise concrete measures to adapt to climate change. 相似文献
20.
Land use changes operate at different scales. They trigger a cascade of effects that simultaneously modify the composition
or structure of the landscape and of the local vegetation. Mobil animals, and birds in particular, can respond quickly to
such multi-scalar changes. We took advantage of a long term study on the response of songbirds to land-use changes on four
Mediterranean islands in Corsica and Sardinia to explore the benefits of a multi-scale analysis of the relationships between
songbird distribution, vegetation structure and landscape dynamics. Field data and aerial photographs were used to describe
the vegetation at three different scales. Birds were censused by point counts. We used statistical variance decomposition
to study how bird distribution and vegetation at various scales were linked. We analysed multi-scale vegetation changes (floristic
composition, plot vegetation type, and landscape structure) and their consequences on bird distribution with multivariate
and non-parametrical tests. The distribution of most species was linked to at least two spatial scales. The weight of a given
scale was consistent with life-history traits for species whose biology was well-known. In the examples studied, vegetation
composition, vegetation type and landscape changes that resulted from land abandonment negatively affected birds depending
on open or heterogeneous areas. Our results emphasize that multi-scale analyses can greatly enhance our understanding of bird
distribution and of their changes. Management of these populations should take into account measures at various spatial scales
depending on the sensitivity of the species. 相似文献