Emergency Presentations of the Exotic Small Mammalian Herbivore Trauma Patient

Trauma is a common complaint by owners of small exotic mammalian herbivores (e.g., rabbits, rodents) presented to veterinary hospitals. The term “trauma” is a broad disease category applied to patients with physical debilitation associated with injury often classified as “blunt,” “penetrating,” or “burn” in origin. Because many small exotic mammalian herbivores are prey animals, clinical signs of trauma may be masked until the effects of the injury outweigh the innate nature to survive. Small exotic mammalian herbivores are disproportionately sensitive to stress; thus, pain management and supportive care are extremely important during the initial stages of trauma management. Small exotic mammals differ slightly from other companion animals (e.g., dogs, cats) in regard to common trauma presentations. However, with a few therapeutic modifications (e.g., antibiotic selection, avoidance of corticosteroids, preventing self-trauma), treatment of small exotic mammalian herbivore trauma cases follows the same conventional guidelines used for other companion animals.     

Future directions in training of veterinarians for small exotic mammal medicine: expectations, potential, opportunities, and mandates

Small exotic mammals have been companions to people for almost as long as dogs and cats have been. The challenge for veterinary medicine today is to decipher the tea leaves and determine whether small mammals are fad or transient pets or whether they will still be popular in 20 years. This article focuses on pet small-mammal medicine, as the concerns of the laboratory animal are better known and may differ profoundly from those of a pet. Dozens of species of small exotic mammals are kept as pets. These pet small-mammal species have historically served human purposes other than companionship: for hunting, for their pelts, or for meat. Now, they are common pets. At present, most veterinary schools lack courses in the medical care of these animals. Veterinary students need at least one required class to introduce them to these pets. Currently, there are no small-mammal-only residency programs. This does not correspond with current needs. The only way to judge current needs is by assessing what employers are looking for. In a recent JAVMA classified section, almost 30% of small-animal practices in suburban/urban areas were hiring veterinarians with knowledge of exotic pets. All veterinarians must recognize that pet exotic small mammals have changed the landscape of small-animal medicine. It is a reality that, today, many small-animal practices see pet exotic small mammals on a daily basis.     

Safe Sedation and Immobilization of Unusual Exotic Species Encountered in Practice

Safe handling techniques for traditional exotic companion mammals (e.g., ferrets, rabbits, and rodents) have been well described. However, some uncommon species, including various wild animals maintained as pets, should not be manually restrained because of the nature of the animal and the potential for injury to both the pet and the handler. Sedation and immobilization techniques are useful to enhance safety and to facilitate diagnostic and treatment procedures. Sedatives are best administered to these animals with the aid of a squeeze cage.     

Critical Care of the Exotic Companion Mammal (With a Focus on Herbivorous Species): The First Twenty-Four Hours

The number of pet herbivorous exotic mammals is increasing, and their owners are demanding quality medical care. Successful treatment of the critical herbivorous exotic mammal patient is complicated by small patient size, physiological diversity, and a lack of research and clinical data regarding therapeutic response to disease conditions. Despite these impediments, the same principles and techniques used in other domestic animals, such as dogs and cats, can be applied to the herbivorous exotic mammal patient.     

Vitamin D and Ultraviolet B Radiation Considerations for Exotic Pets

Vitamin D is an essential hormone that regulates many different functions in vertebrates and can have a protective effect against various disease conditions. Providing exotic pets appropriate access to vitamin D, through the diet, ultraviolet B (UVB) exposure, or a combination of both, is important for veterinarians and exotic pet owners to consider. Although it is commonly thought that most animals derive the vitamin D they need through their diet, there are a number of species that appear to benefit more from UVB exposure. In addition, there has been minimal study to investigate appropriate dietary levels of vitamin D for many of our exotic pets. Although the recommendation of providing UVB lighting has been primarily limited to captive reptiles, research with other species (e.g., birds and small mammals) suggests that these animals may also benefit from this type of lighting. However, the provision of UVB is not without its potential side effects. The purpose of this article is to review the important roles of vitamin D in animals, the different methods animals use to acquire this hormone, the potential clinical signs associated with hypovitaminosis or hypervitaminosis D, the role of artificial UVB lighting in the synthesis of vitamin D, and the potential side effects associated with UVB radiation.     

Nonreproductive surgery in small mammals.

The sophistication of soft-tissue surgery techniques in small mammals is increasing rapidly. Exotic animal practitioners must be familiar with the diseases, conditions, and anatomic variations of each small-mammal species. The small size of these patients should not preclude the use of technologic advances available for other small animals. Despite these challenges, successful resolution of surgical problems in small exotic mammals is not only possible but also should be the expected result of veterinarians' efforts in such cases.     

Evidence-based Medicine in Small Mammals

Evidence-based medicine in small exotic mammals is often considered challenging because of a lack of information related to reference data, validated diagnostic tests, treatment outcome, side effects, long-term prognosis, and financial constraints of the owner. However, despite this lack of information, it is still possible to provide good medical care to small exotic mammals and confirm a disease diagnosis that can be properly treated. With many small exotic mammal cases, the condition of the animal and, ultimately, the disease diagnosis, may not be familiar to the attending veterinarian, and in some cases the disease itself may not have ever been described in that species in the scientific literature. This article describes the process of diagnosing hyperthyroidism in a guinea pig using a recommended patient assessment, diagnostic, and treatment protocol.     

Anesthesia and Analgesia in Rabbits and Rodents

Rabbits and rodents are popular pets and are often presented to veterinarians for evaluation and medical treatment. Anesthesia in exotic pets is required for many diagnostic and surgical procedures and is associated with a higher perioperative risk in rabbits and rodents when compared with dogs and cats. Inhalation anesthetic agents are commonly used as the sole source of anesthesia in small rodents, whereas injectable agents in combination with inhalation anesthesia are often used for rabbits and larger rodents. Analgesia is an important component of exotic pet medicine. Although it may be difficult to recognize signs of pain in companion exotic mammals, adequate pain management should always be provided. Opioid and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs are the analgesic medications of choice, but others should be considered (e.g., local anesthetic agents). This article provides an update of the current literature regarding anesthesia and analgesia in rabbits and rodents.     

Advances in Exotic Mammal Clinical Therapeutics

It is imperative that the veterinarian treating exotic companion mammals stay abreast of the latest developments relating to medications and drug delivery approaches for safety and efficacy. Sustained-release formulations of commonly used drugs, as well as newer routes for administration of therapeutic agents, allow the veterinarian treating exotic companion mammals to reduce the stress associated with drug administration. Interactions can occur between vehicle and drugs when formulations are compounded; therefore, research studies are warranted regarding potential problems associated with these formulations. However, newer studies have been published that provide the basis for exploring the use of different vehicles, frequency of dosing, and drug delivery techniques for various classes of drugs in exotic mammals. The goals of this review are to not only evaluate new medications or uses for medications in companion exotic mammal patients but also review new methods of drug delivery that might be useful to the veterinarian who treats these animals.     

Survey of Zoonotic Dermatoses in Client‐Owned Exotic Pet Mammals in Southern Italy

Several ‘exotic’ mammalian species (e.g. rabbits, rodents, ferrets and hedgehogs) live in close proximity to humans as companion pets. Skin diseases (SD) are frequent causes of morbidity in exotic pet mammals, and most of those SDs have a zoonotic potential. The purpose of this study was to determine the frequencies and types of zoonotic dermatosis (ZD) in client‐owned, exotic pet mammals in Southern Italy. Six‐hundred and fifty‐five medical records of exotic pet mammals examined between 2011 and 2012, across twenty private practice veterinary clinics around the Naples area (Italy), were retrospectively evaluated and screened for animals diagnosed with SDs (rabbits n = 455, guinea pigs n = 93, ferrets n = 64, hedgehogs n = 19, chinchillas n = 13 and rats n = 11). The records of animals diagnosed with SD, whose causative agents had a zoonotic potential, were selected for analysis. The Mann–Whitney independent test was used for statistical analysis. A P value ≤0.05 was considered statistically significant. Eighty‐two records (12.5%) of animals with ZD were identified. Of those, 56.1% (46/82) were affected by fungal infections and 42.7% (35/82) by parasitic infections. No zoonotic bacterial or viral infections were diagnosed. Dermatophytosis was significantly diagnosed more frequently in younger animals. The results of this survey indicate that exotic pet mammals may serve as active carriers for many highly contagious pathogens with zoonotic potential. Awareness and vigilance by the veterinary practitioner is crucial in the prevention of occurrences of ZDs. Children frequently come in close contact with exotic pets. To prevent the unplanned transmission of pathogen from pet to human, an active routine screening examination and preventative treatments are strongly recommended for every newly purchased pet mammal.     

Emergency Presentations Associated with Cardiovascular Disease in Exotic Herbivores

Exotic animals, including small herbivores, are increasing in popularity as companion animals. Commonly owned exotic herbivores include guinea pigs, chinchillas, and rabbits. These animals fall into the category of prey species with an inherent instinct to hide their illness until severely affected by the disease process. Therefore, any of these animals presented as an emergency case must be carefully evaluated for chronic underlying illness. Cardiovascular emergency and critical care principles are similar across all mammalian species. However, specialized techniques and adaptations are occasionally required because of the unique physiology and natural behaviors of these animals. It is essential to evaluate and stabilize these patients before attempting definitive diagnostic plans. Emergency cardiovascular presentations, as in other mammals, consist of congestive heart failure, arrhythmias, pericardial effusion, and toxicities that can result in cardiac and pulmonary arrest. Cardiac disease is a relatively common finding in small exotic mammals, but there are few peer-reviewed reports regarding diagnosis and treatment of heart disease in these species. Diagnostic testing and treatment options are generally based on knowledge of small animal medicine.     

Analgesia and analgesic techniques.

In recent years, there has been a great increase in our understanding of pain mechanisms and our awareness of pain in small animals. Despite increased knowledge, many animals still go undertreated or untreated. Small exotic animals are a unique group of patients, and can prove challenging for the practitioner concerned with their welfare. This article reviews the process of nociception and how one can intervene in the pain pathway. Newer analgesic drugs are discussed, along with some novel administration techniques that can be adapted for small mammals. Ketamine has been regarded primarily as a chemical restraining agent, but new information reveals that it may have an important place in pain management.     

Gastrointestinal Disease in Exotic Small Mammals

Exotic small mammal medicine is a relatively new specialty area within veterinary medicine. Ferrets, rabbits, and rodents have long been used as animal models in human medical research investigations, resulting in a body of basic anatomic and physiologic information that can be used by veterinarians treating these species. Unfortunately, there is a paucity of veterinary articles that describe clinical presentation, diagnosis, and treatment options of gastrointestinal (GI) disease as it affects exotic small mammals. Although there is little reference material relating to exotic small mammal GI disease, patients are commonly presented to veterinary hospitals with digestive tract disorders. This article provides the latest information available for GI disease in ferrets (Helicobacter mustelae gastritis, inflammatory bowel disease [IBD], GI lymphoma, systemic coronavirus, coccidiosis, and liver disease), rabbits (GI motility disorders, liver lobe torsion, astrovirus, and coccidiosis), guinea pigs (gastric dilatation volvulus [GDV]), rats (Taenia taeniaeformis), and hamsters (Clostridium difficile). Both noninfectious diseases and emerging infectious diseases are reviewed as well as the most up-to-date diagnostics and treatment options.     

Critical care monitoring.

Critical care monitoring in exotic practice is limited by the small size and the physiologic diversity of many patients. However, many of the principles applied to humans and other mammals can be extrapolated to monitoring in exotic animals. Advances in the monitoring of human patients offer the potential for more practical, low-cost monitoring in critical exotic patients in the future.     

Surgical sterilization in small mammals. Spay and castration.

The intrinsic physiologic and anatomic differences between small exotic mammals and the species that are more familiar to veterinary practitioners (i.e., dogs and cats) are substantial. This discussion is limited to rabbits, mice and rats (murid rodents), hamsters and gerbils (cricetid rodents), and guinea pigs and chinchillas (hystricomorph rodents). In addition to their anatomic and physiologic differences, differences in behaviors, such as their reaction to stress and pain, exist. Preoperative and postoperative care, basic surgical techniques unique to these species, and useful materials are discussed.     

Beyond BSE: Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies in other animal species

There are several other diseases besides BSE which belong to the group of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE). Although most mammals can be experimentally infected with the agent of these diseases, generally only single representatives of the orders Artiodactyla (cloven-hoofed animals), Carnivora (carnivores) and Primates (humans and monkeys) are naturally infected in the field. An overview of the current state of knowledge on TSE in several species like exotic ruminants, deer, mink and cats is presented. Etiological, clinical, anatomic-pathological and epidemiological aspects are described.     

The Feeding of Live Food to Exotic Pets: Issues of Welfare and Ethics

Live food items are often fed to exotic pet species whether they are birds, amphibians, reptiles, or mammals. This raises issues of welfare, both of the animals fed live prey items and the prey itself. Concerns over live food welfare are particularly marked in the feeding of vertebrate prey items and evidence presented here shows the prolonged time taken for rodents to die. However, the welfare of all exotic pets relies both on providing optimal nutrition to the predator and ensuring, as much as possible, that their natural behaviours can be expressed. Does that mean that predatory species must be fed live prey? This article discusses this problem and seeks potential solutions.     

Small exotic mammal orthopedics.

The basic principles of orthopedic repair are the same for small exotic mammals as for the canine or feline patient. This article assists the clinician in determining the most appropriate method of fixation and maximizes the probability of a favorable outcome.     

Microbiological standardization of laboratory animals]

An overview is given on various aspects of microbiological standardisation of laboratory animals. The paper focuses on small rodents because rats and mice are the most frequently used animal species. An introductory chapter describes the importance of micro-organisms and their potential effects on animals and animal experiments. Some terms describing the microbiological quality of rodents (e.g., germ-free, "SPF", conventional) are explained. Housing conditions and requirements for the management which are both necessary to maintain a high microbiological standard in the animal facility are described. The most relevant sources of micro-organisms are briefly discussed. An overview is given on some aspects which have to be considered during health monitoring like, e.g., micro-organisms to be monitored, sample size and frequency, age of animals. In the reference section primarily actual and general articles or recommendations are listed. Further details can be found at internet homepages which are listed for several organisations active in laboratory animal science.     

Companion Animals Symposium: Environmental enrichment for companion, exotic, and laboratory animals

Animal scientists have an extraordinary burden to promote the health and well-being of all animals in their care. Promoting species- or breed-appropriate behaviors through proper training and enrichment, regardless of animal housing, should be a paramount concern for all animal scientists working with exotic animals, laboratory animals, shelter animals, or privately owned pet animals. Developing ideal training and enrichment programs for any species begins with understanding basic behavior patterns and emotional systems of animals. The basic emotional systems in mammals have been extensively mapped; however, most of these studies are in the neuroscience literature and seldom read by animal science professionals. The emotional circuits for fear have been well documented through studies demonstrating that lesions to the amygdala will block both conditioned and unconditioned fear behaviors. Additionally, other core emotional systems including seeking (i.e., approaching a novel stimulus), rage, panic (e.g., separation stress), play, lust (i.e., sex drive), and care (e.g., mother-young nurturing behavior) have been identified. More recent neuroscience research has discovered the subcortical brain regions that drive different types of seeking behaviors. Research to increase the understanding of the emotional systems that drive both abnormal and normal animal behaviors could greatly improve animal welfare by making it possible to provide more effective environmental enrichment programs. Enrichment devices and methods could be specifically designed to enable the expression of highly motivated behaviors that are driven by emotional circuits in the brain. The objective of this paper is to increase awareness of animal scientists to the field of neuroscience studying animal emotions and the application of that science to improve the welfare of captive exotic animals, laboratory animals, and pets with environmental enrichment.