Phosphatase activity in avian mycoplasmas.

Fifty-four strains of avian mycoplasma representing 11 species or serotypes were examined for their phosphatase activity using two different methods. Both methods gave similar results. All of four strains of Mycoplasma anatis and six of M meleagridis and the type strain of serotype L were phosphatase positive. The other species gave variable reactions between strains and on different occasions of testing.     

Current research in avian chemotherapy.

Chemotherapy as a treatment modality is increasingly being used in avian oncology. Currently, most chemotherapeutic agents can only be used empirically, as pharmacokinetic data in birds are lacking.Recently, the pharmacokinetic profile of the platinum analogs,cisplatin, and carboplatin has been reported in Sulfur-crested cockatoos,paving the way for clinical and toxicity trials.     

Recent advances in avian virology.

Selected, recent research on the following avian diseases, and their causative viruses, has been reviewed: chicken anaemia, infectious bursal disease, turkey rhinotracheitis, avian nephritis, fowlpox, influenza, infectious bronchitis and turkey enteritis.     

Emergency avian surgery.

Avian surgery is an exercise of preparedness; this statement is never so true as in emergency and critical care situations. The techniques used in avian surgery are significantly different from those used in larger species and require microsurgical techniques. Before initiating a surgical procedure, the patient must be evaluated and, in many cases, prepared or preconditioned. Rarely is surgery such an emergency that the prognosis would not be improved by readying the patient. Techniques of tissue handling, approaches to the coelomic cavities and a select number of surgical procedures are described.     

Laboratory testing in pet avian medicine.

The importance of employing laboratory diagnostics in the examination of avian patients cannot be overemphasized. The physical examination alone is grossly insufficient. Many avian illnesses do not display external signs, and laboratory work is imperative in detecting them. Only after the assessment of various laboratory parameters can an examination be considered complete.     

Observations on avian pasteurellosis in Britain.

An investigation into the extent and significance of Pasteurella multocida infections of birds and poultry in Britain during a three year period (1974--1977) was undertaken. This was achieved by means of postal questionnaires, coupled with the biochemical and serological examination of bacterial isolates from 91 outbreaks in poultry and from nine cases in other avian species.     

Treatment of fractures in avian species.

External fixation, with coaptation or Kirschner-Ehmer splints, is a viable treatment for many fractures in captive and wild birds. Important considerations in selecting a device are the weight and size of the device, location of the fracture relative to joints, and prognosis associated with location of the fracture(s). A variety of materials, not limited to traditional medical materials, may be used in coaptation splinting. Straws, plastic spoons, and rubber balls can serve as effective splints. Type I and II Kirschner splints are typically used in birds, although large birds may require a type III splint on leg fractures. The most useful configuration for wing fractures is the type Ia single bar splint using epoxy or acrylic for the connecting bar. This splint is lightweight, positioned close to the patient, and stable for most fractures. The type II splint is an excellent choice for leg fractures at the level of the tibiotarsus and below. The destructive character of psittacines requires all splints be protected from the beak of the bird. Clavicular-furcular and coracoid fractures in small birds may be effectively managed with coaptation splinting. In birds over 400 g body weight, open reduction is needed for best results. Since fractures of the foramen triosseum are usually not surgically repairable, they can be stabilized with coaptation splints. Although humeral fractures may be managed with coaptation in some circumstances, firm stabilization with a type I Kirschner-Ehmer splint or internal fixation is best. Single bone fracture(s) of the radius or ulna can usually be managed with minimal treatment, brailling, or figure-of-eight wraps. Fractures of both the radius and the ulna require a type I Kirschner-Ehmer splint for internal fixation. Coaptation splinting alone is usually indicated for carpal or carpometacarpal injuries. Femoral fractures in small birds may be managed with coaptation splinting, although fractures in large birds or unstable fractures require internal fixation or a type I Kirschner-Ehmer splint. Tibiotarsal fractures, in many species, may be managed with internal fixation or a type II Kirschner-Ehmer splint. Tarsometatarsal fractures can be cast or stabilized with a type II Kirschner-Ehmer splint. Phalangeal fractures are best managed with coaptation splinting.     

Common procedures in other avian species.

Although psittacine species represent the majority of avian patients seen in most exotic animal practices, nonpsittacine species such as passerines and galliformes may be presented as pets, as members of zoo collections, or as injured or ill wildlife. Many features of handling, restraint, sample collection, medicine, and surgery are similar in psittacine and nonpsittacine species. In many cases, the equipment required will be similar as well, with a few modifications.     

Collecting diagnostic samples in avian patients.

With the increasing owner demand of thorough medical evaluation of avian patients, clinicians are being required to collect meaningful diagnostic samples from bird species. The art of diagnosis stems from taking a complete medical history, performing a thorough physical examination, collecting appropriate diagnostics, and interpreting the collective information. This article focuses on methods of collecting diagnostic samples in avian patients.     

The avian thyroid gland.

There has been a considerable amount of research regarding the function of the avian thyroid gland, particularly in chickens. There is also more information on diseases of the avian thyroid gland, although it is usually in the form of case reports. This article covers a limited amount of material on the structure and function of the avian thyroid gland and its diseases.     

Equipping the avian practice.

The interest in avian medicine grows every year, and the degree of successful diagnosis and treatment in our avian patient has increased tremendously over the last 2 decades. For a veterinarian interested in avian practice there are many decisions to be made before one just accepts a patient. As outlined in this summary, there are many decisions to make regarding the level and diversity a practitioner wishes to explore (only exotics, poultry, ratites, Columbiforms, raptors, and so on) and then which equipment will be necessary to perform that level of practice. There is no master list of equipment that every avian practitioner must own. Needs must be catered to the species seen and the individual interest of the practitioner. Continuing education courses are now offered throughout the country on various aspects of avian medicine. The Association of Avian Veterinarians provides a journal, yearly conference, Web site, and a wide range of support materials. The author implores interested veterinarians to investigate these great learning experiences before casually deciding to add avian patients to a general companion animal practice.     

Pet avian medicine. Case reports.

Four case reports are presented. The first involves chronic lead toxicity in a Yellow-naped Amazon Parrot, which presented for a shoulder injury. The second discusses Aspergillosis in an African Grey Parrot following smoke inhalation and systemic antibiotic use. The third describes Chlamydiosis in a recently imported Amazon Parrot, and the final case concerns rhinitis/sinusitis in a cockatiel.     

Types of renal disease in avian species.

Renal disease in birds is frequently encountered. Like most other animals, birds are susceptible to a full spectrum of renal insults,such as toxins, tumors, infections, and degenerative conditions. Accurate diagnosis of renal disease is based on a complete history,physical examination, and laboratory evaluation of the patient. Because it is often required for a more definitive diagnosis, special attention is given to histopathologic evaluation of renal tissue,whether through a premortem biopsy or collection at gross necropsy.     

Expornitic of avian pox in a zoo.

During a 6-week period at the San Diego Zoo, avian pox occurred in 9 pheasants representing 5 species. Lesions were limited to facial skin and consisted of epithelial cell hyperplasia, secondary inflammatory changes, and intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusion bodies which, by electron microscopy, were shown to contain pox virus. The disease was self-limiting in 7 pheasants, but 2 pheasants died. Free-ranging Indian red junglefowl were implicated as the source of the infection.     

Basic techniques in pet avian clinical pathology.

An understanding of clinical pathology is extremely important for the pet avian clinician. The basics are often poorly understood by the busy practitioner. This article has served as a review for clinicians wanting the basics but having neither the time nor the resources to examine large volumes of material. This information has been designed to enable the veterinarian to understand better the limitations of the tests and the difficulties encountered by the avian technician in performing the tests so important in clinical avian practice.     

The avian pancreas in health and disease.

The avian endocrine pancreas shares some similarities with mammals but also some clinically relevant differences in anatomy and physiology. Diabetes mellitus, an uncommon disease of pet birds, is a challenging condition because of lack of knowledge of the exact pathophysiology and responses to insulin therapy. This article reviews the anatomy and physiology of the avian pancreas and describes the etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of diabetes mellitus in pet birds.