Wide hybridization in cowpea: problems and prospects

Summary Attempts were made to cross a wild profusely hairy cowpea (Vigna vexillata) with other cowpea types (both cultivated and non-cultivated) for the purpose of transferring gene(s) for hairiness from the wild to the cultivated genepool. No hybrid was however obtained.     

Development of self-incompatible Brassica napus: (I) introgression of S-alleles from Brassica oleracea through interspecific hybridization

Cultivars in Brassica napus var. oleifera, a self‐pollinating, self‐compatible species, have traditionally been developed as open‐pollinated lines or populations. Significant yield gains in this species have been realized through the exploitation of heterosis. Commercial hybrid production has been possible as a result of the development of a number of pollination control systems. Self‐incompatibility was transferred from B. oleracea var. italica to B. napus var. oleifera through interspecific hybridization. The response to interspecific pollination, as measured by pod elongation and initial stages of ovule development, was genotype dependent, and two highly responsive B. napus genotypes were identified. Embryo rescue was used to produce the interspecific hybrids. Isoelectric focusing of stigma proteins was used to identify S‐alleles in the interspecific hybrids to facilitate backcrossing. Segregation of the S‐locus through a series of back‐crosses to B. napus was complicated by aneuploidy; however, the S‐locus was found to segregate as a single gene. Usefulness of B. oleracea as a source of S‐alleles for pollination control in B. napus is discussed.     

Decentralized selection and participatory approaches in plant breeding for low-input systems

Heterogeneous environments make it difficult to apply consistent selection pressure because often it is difficult to identify a single or a few superior genotypes across all sets of conditions. However, when the target system is characterized by heterogeneity of environmental stress, varieties developed in high-yielding conditions may fail to satisfy farmers’ needs. Although this type of system is often found in marginal environments of developing countries, heterogeneous environmental conditions are also a feature of organic and low-external-input systems in developed countries. To meet the needs of these systems, breeding programs must decentralize selection, and although decentralized selection can be done in formal breeding programs, it is more efficient to involve farmers in the selection and testing of early generation materials. Breeding within these target systems is challenging, both genetically and logistically, but can identify varieties that are adapted to farming systems in marginal environments or that use very few external inputs. A great deal has been published in recent years on the need for local adaptation and participatory plant breeding; this article reviews and synthesizes that literature.     

Choice of selection strategy in breeding barley for stress environments

To determine the optimum selection environment for barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) targeted at low-input, stress environment, barley lines were selected for high yield under stress (YS), high yield under non-stress (YNS), or average yield in stress and non-stress conditions (YA) during three breeding cycles (cohorts) of three years each. The lines were then tested in a total of 21 year-location combinations with average grain yields ranging from 0.35 to 4.86 t ha^-1. Yield under stress of the YS lines was between 27% and 54% higher than that of the YNS lines, with the top YS lines yielding under stress between 16% and 30% more than the top YNS lines. Realized heritability was between 0.35 and 0.67 when selection was conducted under stress and was significant in all three cohorts. By contrast, selection under non-stress gave a significant response in only one cohort, and its efficiency in improving yield under stress was significantly lower than selection under stress. The best YNS line ranked only 19th for yield under stress. The highest-yielding lines under stress were not only selected under stress, but were also landraces collected in very dry areas (< 250 mm total annual rainfall). This confirms earlier findings and supports the idea that the most effective way to improve productivity of crops grown in less-favored areas is to use locally adapted germplasm and select in the target environment(s). This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The importance of Endosperm Balance Number in potato breeding and the evolution of tuber-bearing Solanum species

Summary Endosperm failure is considered the primary reason for the lack of success in intra-and interspecific crosses. The Endosperm Balance Number (EBN) hypothesis is a unifying concept for predicting endosperm function in intraspecific, interploidy, and interspecific crosses. In the EBN system, every species has an effective ploidy (EBN), which must be in a 2:1 maternal to paternal ratio in the endosperm for crosses to succeed. The knowledge of EBN is very useful in the transfer of genes from exotic germplasm, and in the development of new breeding schemes in potato. The paper describes the strategies for introducing 2x(1EBN), 2x(2EBN), 4x(2EBN) and 6x(4EBN) germplasm into the cultivated 4x(4EBN) potato gene pool. A new methodology for producing 4x(4EBN) and 2x(2EBN) chromosome addition lines is also discussed. EBN has evolutionary importance in the origin of tuber-bearing Solanums. The role of the EBN in the origin of diploid and polyploid potato species, and as a barrier for hybridization and speciation of sympatric species within the same ploidy level is demonstrated. The origin of 3x and 5x cultivated tuber-bearing Solanums may also be explained using the EBN concept. EBN has been reported to exist in other plant species: alfalfa, beans, blueberries, rice, soybeans, squashes, tomato, forage legumes, grasses, ornamentals and Datura stramonium. This indicates that EBN may have broad application and could be useful for germplasm transfer and breeding in other crop species.     

Glucosinolate content in interspecific crosses of Brassica carinata with B. juncea and B. napus

Brassica carinata A. Braun is a highly productive oilseed crop in the Ethiopian highlands, but the seed has a high 2-propenyl glucosinolate content, which is undesirable. The objective of this study was to introgress, through interspecific crosses, genes for low 2-propenyl glucosinolate content from the B genome of B. juncea and C genome of B. napus into the B. carinata B and C genomes and thus develop low glucosinolate B. carinata. The cross [(B. carinata×B. juncea) ×B. carinata] yielded plants that contained only ～ 20 μmoles of 2-propenyl glucosinolate, which was an 85% reduction compared with levels in B. carinata seed. Plants of the [(B. carinata×B. napus) ×B. carinata] cross had normal high concentrations of 2-propenyl glucosinolate. Backcross plants of both interspecific crosses also contained 3-butenyl and 2-hydroxy-3-butenyl glucosinolates. The results of these crosses suggested that genes for glucosinolate synthesis were located on B genome chromosomes of B. carinata because B. napus C genome introgressions did not result in reductions of total glucosinolate contents. The total alkenyl glucosinolate content of one F₃ family of the B. juncea backcross was similar to that of the B. juncea parent. It was concluded that through further selection in this family, B. carinata plants could be identified that would be basically free of 2-propenyl glucosinolate, and have a low total alkenyl glucosinolate content.     

Effectiveness of selection at microtuber crop level in potato

Correlation coefficients were computed between microtuber crops and normal seed crop in order to study the selection efficiency for agronomic characters in potato at microtuber crop level. Two types of microtuber, green and white, were produced by inducing microtuberization under light and dark conditions, respectively. Genotypic differences were significant for various characters in both microtuber and normal seed crops. Green and white microtubers were equally useful for selection, judging by the crops raised from them. Selection at microtuber crop level was found to be highly effective for plant height, stem habit, tuber colour and general impression, and moderately effective for internode length, leaf length, leaflet width, stem pigment, plant vigour and tuber shape. Selection efficiency was low for tuber yield, tuber number, average tuber weight, number of nodes, number of stems, leaf colour and number of eyes. The implications of these results for potato breeding and germplasm evaluation programmes are discussed and a procedure for selecting superior genotypes at microtuber crop level is outlined.     

Effectiveness of selection at CIMMYT's main maize breeding sites in Mexico for performance at sites in Africa and vice versa

The exchange of elite breeding materials across regions is an important way in which multinational maize breeding programmes access new genetic variation, improve efficiency and reduce costs. Our objectives were to examine whether CIMMYT's breeding programmes for tropical and subtropical environments in Mexico and Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA) can effectively share materials. Sets of selected and unselected lines were evaluated for per se and testcross performance in multiple environments in Mexico and ESA for grain yield, days to anthesis and plant height. Genotypic correlations between performance in Mexico and ESA as testcross and line per se were high (≥ 0.72) for all experiments, and indirect selection efficiency ranged from 67 to over 100% for all traits. Lines selected in ESA or Latin America performed equally well in each region, indicating selection was for broad rather than regional adaptation. Thus, breeding programmes of CIMMYT in both Mexico and ESA can benefit tremendously by exchanging breeding materials and test results, and elite selections from each region should be fast‐tracked for evaluation in the other.     

Repetitive cycling and simple recurrent selection in traditional barley breeding programs

Summary A critical examination of three representative barley development programs from three barley producing areas of the world reveals that the evolution of each can be explained by the concepts of simple or phenotypic recurrent selection. Typically, each has utilized only 13 to 16 separate genetic sources in their program. Most of the sources were introduced over 50 years ago and have been progressively recombined through a simple recurrent selection process. The time period required for selection, testing, and reincorporation of improved genetic recombinants into the breeding program, or the completion of a cycle of recurrent selection, ranged from 6.5 to 10.5 years. If the major operative force in barley breeding is recurrent selection, then additional attention should be given to increasing the genetic base and reducing the time required to complete cycles of selection.     

Genetic improvement and breeding of tea plant (Camellia sinensis) in China: from individual selection to hybridization and molecular breeding

Tea is an important revenue source for the tea producing countries in the world, including China. China is the place of origin of tea plants, it has the broadest genetic variations in the world. It also has bred more than 200 improved cultivars. The improved cultivars have made important contribution in the tea industry. In this paper the achievements of tea genetic improvement and breeding, the current situation of collection, conservation, appraisal and evaluation of tea germplasms, the establishment and development of tea breeding system were reviewed. The main research emphases for the genetics and breeding of tea plant in the near future in China are proposed.     

Genetic analysis of resistance to Phoma tracheiphila in three Citrus and Poncirus progenies

Mal secco is a serious tracheomycosis, caused by the fungus Phoma tracheiphila (Petri) Kanc, et Ghik., which attacks some species of the genus Citrus. The considerable amount of time and space required to evaluate host plant response has discouraged research on the mechanism of inheritance involved in the susceptibility to this disease. The aim of the present work was to study segregation of the resistance trait in three progenies obtained by crossing Citrus latipes (Swing.) Tan., as a female parent, with the male parents Poncirus trifoliata (L.) Raf., C.aurantium L. and C. volkameriana Pasq. Resistance determination was based on natural infections observed over 10 years. Results allowed us to hypothesize three alternative genes (A, B and C) which determine dominant resistance as opposed to susceptibility: the presence of a single allele can thus confer resistance. In addition, we suggest the existence of a fourth gene which, in conditions of dominance, is able to determine susceptibility by nullifying the action of the dominant B allele. Response to the pathogen was also associated with the production of chitinase a PR (pathogenesis-related) protein reported to be present in great quantities in mal secco-resistant Citrus genotypes. Segregation analysis of one F₂ progeny confirmed the hypothesis that the resistance trait is controlled by at least two dominant genes. Further evidence is needed to ascertain whether this hypothesis is applicable to other Citrus species, in which the possibility of other genetic mechanisms being implicated cannot be ruled out, thus making the genetic basis of mal secco resisance more complex.     

Accelerated pedigree selection: An alternative to individual plant selection in the normal pedigree breeding method in the self-pollinated cereals

Summary Accelerated pedigree selection (APS) involves initial selection based on the assessment of lines rather than individual plants. These lines can be derived by accelerated generation procedures. Unlike single seed descent (SSD), line selection can begin in an early generation. This minimises the risk of differential mortality or sterility. Brief outlines of APS for spring and winter cereals are given. The length of the APS breeding cycle is shorter than that of either pedigree selection (PS) or SSD. In addition to higher efficiency of selection for yield, which must be offset against the need for greater resources, it is expected that APS should result in valuable genotypes being retained and better selection for desirable combinations of characters.     

An evaluation of a new rhombic grid selection,gridded mass selection and simple mass selection methods for yield improvement in wheat

Summary An experiment was conducted in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada to: (1) ascertain the efficiency of gridded mass selection; (2) to determine if additional selection efficiency can be achieved through refinement of the gridded mass selection procedure; and (3) to determine if the degree of homozygosity has an effect on response to single-plant selection. Three selection methods [simple mass selection (SMS); gridded mass selection (GMS); and a new rhombic grid selection (RGS)] were applied to four populations [a conventional F₂ (CON-F₂); an intermated F₂ (INT-F₂); and 2 partial backcrossed populations] developed from a biparental cross involving the Canadian spring wheat cultivars, Glenlea and Sinton. Averaged over the 4 populations, a single cycle of RGS (10% selection intensity) increased yield by about 9.5%, whereas GMS and SMS increased yield by approximately 4.5% and 3.1%, respectively. The degree of homozygosity of individual plants that make up the population appeared to have an effect on the efficiency of selection. In general, selection was more efficient in the two partial backcrossed populations, and least efficient in the CON-F₂ and INT-F₂ populations. The largest response to selection (15.9%) was attained when RGS was applied in the backcross to Glenlea population, and the lowest response (1.2%) when SMS was enforced in the CON-F₂ population. This paper represents the first report on the efficiency of rhombic grid selection for yield improvement in cereal crops.Contribution No. 550 of Agriculture Canada, Lacombe Research Station, Bag Service 5000, Lacombe, Alberta, Canada TOC ISO     

Decentralized-participatory plant breeding: an example of demand driven research

It is widely recognized that conventional plant breeding has been more beneficial to farmers in high-potential environments or those who can profitably modify their environment to suit new cultivars, than to the poorest farmers who cannot afford to modify their environment through the application of additional inputs and cannot risk the replacement of their traditional, well known and reliable varieties. As a consequence, low yields, crop failures, malnutrition, famine, and eventually poverty still affect a large proportion of humanity. Participatory plant breeding (PPB) is seen by several scientists as a way to overcome the limitations of conventional breeding by offering farmers the possibility to choose, in their own environment, which varieties suit better their needs and conditions. PPB exploits the potential gains of breeding for specific adaptation through decentralized selection, defined as selection in the target environment, and is the ultimate conceptual consequence of a positive interpretation of genotype × environment interactions. The paper describes a model of PPB developed by The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas and used successfully in several countries in West Asia and North Africa. Genetic variability is generated by breeders, selection is conducted jointly by breeders, farmers, and extension specialists in a number of target environments, and the best selections are used in further cycles of recombination and selection. Technically, the process is similar to conventional breeding, with three main differences. Testing and selection take place on-farm rather than on-station, key decisions are taken jointly by farmers and the breeder, and the process can be independently implemented at a large number of locations. The model also incorporates seed production. Farmers handle the initial phases, multiplying promising breeding material in village-based seed production systems. The PPB model is flexible; it can generate populations, pure lines, and eventually mixtures of pure lines in self-pollinated crops; as well as hybrids, populations, and synthetics in cross-pollinated crops. PPB has several advantages. New varieties reach the release phase much faster than in conventional breeding, and are better suited to farmers’ needs and willingness to invest in inputs and management. Release and seed multiplication activities concentrate on varieties known to be farmer-acceptable. These advantages are particularly relevant to developing countries where large investments in plant breeding have not yielded returns, and many “improved” varieties developed through conventional breeding are not adopted by farmers. PPB also ensures that biodiversity is maintained or increased because different varieties are selected at different locations. In addition to the economical benefits, participatory research has a number of psychological, moral, and ethical benefits, which are the consequence of a progressive empowerment of the farmers’ communities; these benefits affect sectors of their life beyond the agricultural aspects. In conclusion, PPB, as a case of demand driven research, gives voice to farmers, including those who have been traditionally the most marginalized such as the women, and elevates local knowledge to the role of science.     

Possibilities of selection for keeping quality in tulip breeding

Summary The vase-life in tulip (Tulipa L.) is an important character. Research was done on the possibilities of selecting for keeping quality. It was found that the keeping quality of undetached flowers was strongly correlated with the keeping quality of cut flowers at 17°C in a glasshouse. The period from flowering date till 50% discoloration appeared to be highly correlated with days to perianth drop. For practical reasons the latter trait has preference in selection work. The number of days to discoloration is also an effective selection criterion. Flower longevity in the field in April/May and in the glasshouse were significantly correlated; thus, already in the field a first selection on keeping quality can be carried out. The increase in height for flowering (adult) and non-flowering (juvenile) plants during forcing did not appear to be significantly correlated with flower longevity, so preselection on this character is not promising. Flower longevity was positively correlated with forcing period. This poses some problems in selection, as a long forcing period is considered an undesirable character. The daily water uptake of cut flowers was significantly correlated with flower longevity.     

Potential of genomic selection in rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) breeding

Genomic selection employs genome‐wide marker data to predict genomic breeding values. In this study, a population consisting of 391 lines of elite winter oilseed rape derived from nine families was used to evaluate the prospects of genomic selection in rapeseed breeding. All lines have been phenotyped for six morphological, quality‐ and yield‐related traits and genotyped with genome‐wide SNP markers. We used ridge regression best linear unbiased prediction in combination with cross‐validation and obtained medium to high prediction accuracies for the studied traits. Our results illustrate that among‐family variance contributes to the prediction accuracy and can lead to an overestimation of the prospects of genomic selection within single segregating families. We also tested a scenario where estimation of effects was carried out without individuals from the family in which breeding values were predicted, which yielded lower but nevertheless attractive prediction accuracies. Taken together, our results suggest that genomic selection can be a valuable genomic approach for complex agronomic traits towards a knowledge‐based breeding in rapeseed.     

Effectiveness of in vitro selection for agronomic characters in potato

Effectiveness of in vitro selection for agronomic characters was studied by finding correlation coefficients between in vitro and in vivo performance of 22 potato genotypes. Evaluation was performed under eight in vitro and two in vivo conditions. Genotypic differences were highly significant for various characters under all in vitro and in vivo conditions. Error mean squares were much lower in in vitro experiments than in in vivo experiments. In vitro selection was found to be highly effective for tuber colour, stem pigment and number of eyes, and moderately effective for average tuber weight, plant vigour and foliage senescence under specific conditions. The results also indicated the possibility of in vitro selection for heat tolerance. For tuber yield and number of tubers, effectiveness of in vitro selection was low to very low, because differences in phenotypic expressions of genotypes were much enlarged under in vitro conditions compared to under in vivo conditions. Correlation coefficients for certain characters were better when in vitro conditions were closer to in vivo conditions. To improve the efficiency of in vitro selection, there is perhaps a need to simulate and identify the in vitro conditions under which genotypic differences are reflected in phenotypes more realistically as they are expressed under in vivo conditions. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.