Causes of mortality in captive Attwater's prairie chickens (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri) at the San Antonio Zoo, 1997-2000.

Necropsy records for 102 Attwater's prairie chickens (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri) that had been captive-reared and had died at the San Antonio Zoo over a 4-yr period were evaluated to determine the causes of mortality. Gross necropsy, histopathology, and bacterial culture findings are summarized. Mortality was highest in young birds (<6 mo) and embryos. Husbandry- and gastrointestinal-related diseases were the most common causes of mortality.     

Hematology and serum chemistry values in captive Goeldi's monkeys (Callimico goeldii).

Hematologic and biochemical reference values were obtained from 27 healthy, captive, nonanesthetized Goeldi's monkeys (Callimico goeldii), a threatened South American primate, using automated techniques. The merits of nonparametric statistical analysis of values over the more common parametric method were demonstrated.     

Hematology and blood biochemistry of captive mugger crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris).

Comprehensive hematologic and biochemical analyses were conducted on blood from 23 male and 31 female clinically stable captive mugger crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris). Erythrocyte mean corpuscular volume (MCV), potassium, cholesterol, and calcium concentrations were significantly greater in juvenile males than in juvenile females, but no significant differences were determined between parameters of subadult males and subadult females. The mean WBC count and mean heterophil count were significantly higher in adult males than in adult females. Mean uric acid concentration was significantly greater in adult females than in males. Mean erythrocyte count was significantly higher in adults than in juveniles. Adult mean WBC and lymphocyte counts were significantly lower than those of both juveniles and subadults. Subadults had significantly lower mean eosinophil counts than both adults and juveniles. Subadults had significantly lower mean alkaline phosphatase activities than juveniles, whereas the adults had significantly lower aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase activities than other groups. Lactate dehydrogenase activities were significantly lower for subadults than for juveniles and adults. Cholesterol concentrations were significantly higher for subadults and juveniles compared with adults. Triglyceride concentration was significantly lower for subadults and highest for juveniles. Glucose concentrations were significantly higher for adults. Blood urea nitrogen was significantly lower for subadults than for both adults and juveniles. Uric acid concentrations were significantly higher for juveniles than for the subadults and adults. The subadult animals also had a significantly lower potassium concentration. The results obtained were then compared with known values for other crocodilian species.     

Enzootic reticuloendotheliosis in the endangered Attwater's and greater prairie chickens

Reticuloendotheliosis (RE) in captive greater prairie chickens (GPC, Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus) and Attwater's prairie chickens (APC, Tympanuchus cupido attwateri) was first reported in 1998. RE is caused by avian reticuloendotheliosis virus (REV), an oncogenic and immunosuppressive retrovirus infecting multiple species of wild and domestic birds. During August 2004 through May 2006 a captive population of prairie chickens was affected simultaneously with a neoplastic condition and also avian pox, the latter being detected in 7.4% (2 of 27) of all birds submitted for histopathology. A survey for REV was conducted in order to examine its possible role in mortality observed primarily in juvenile and adult specimens of prairie chickens. The investigative procedures included postmortem examinations, histopathology, molecular detection, and virus isolation. In total, 57 Attwater's prairie chickens and two greater prairie chickens were included in the study. REV infection was diagnosed using virus isolation or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or both in 59.5% (28 of 47) of blood samples and/or tumors from suspect birds. Lymphosarcomas were detected in the tissues of 37% (10 of 27) of the birds submitted for histopathology. Such lymphosarcomas suggestive of RE represented the most frequent morphologic diagnosis on histopathology among 27 separate submissions of naturally dead prairie chickens. Overall, REV was detected or RE diagnosed in 34 of 59 prairie chickens (57.62%). The average death age of all birds diagnosed with lymphosarcomas on histopathology was 2.2 yr, ranging from <1 to 4 yr. Although deaths associated with neoplasia occurred in males and females in equal proportions based on submissions, overall more males were diagnosed as REV infected or RE affected (16 males vs. 7 females, and 11 birds of undetermined gender). Reticuloendotheliosis virus was confirmed as a significant cause of mortality in captive prairie chickens.     

Hematology and serum chemistry of captive juvenile double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus).

Hematologic and serum chemical values were obtained for double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) to improve clinical diagnosis of disease in this species. Blood samples were collected from 20 captive double-crested cormorants at 4 to 6 weeks of age. Hematocrit and leukocyte concentrations were determined in heparinized blood. Concentrations of sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, phosphorus, creatinine, glucose, uric acid, total protein, and albumin, and the activity levels of alkaline phosphatase, creatinine kinase, and aspartate aminotransferase were determined in serum. Total leukocyte concentrations in these double-crested cormorants were higher than the limited ranges reported for cormorants of other species, possibly due to subclinical infection with the liver trematode Amphimerus elongatus, and to differences in species and age.     

Hematology and serum biochemistry parameters of North American river otters (Lontra canadensis).

Blood samples were obtained from 155 North American river otters (Lontra canadensis; 94 adult males, 38 adult females, 10 juvenile males, and 13 juvenile females) to establish baseline hematology and from 50 adult river otters (40 males and 10 females) for baseline serum biochemistry parameters for the species. The otters were livetrapped from eastern North Carolina (USA) during a 4-yr period. Data for 14 routine hematologic parameters and 22 serum chemistry assays showed significant differences in total leukocyte count and absolute neutrophil and monocyte numbers for adults versus juveniles, red blood cell counts and hemoglobin between adult and juvenile males, and calcium and alkaline phosphatase values for adult males between years of the study and an increase in leukocyte counts and absolute neutrophils with increased degree of trap injury sustained.     

Hematology and serum biochemistry of captive Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) in Wildlife Reserves Singapore

The Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) faces threat of extinction due to illegal trafficking of its scales for the purpose of traditional medicine in the Asian region. Ex-situ captive breeding and reintroduction programs have been identified to be a key effort in the conservation of the species. The establishment of blood parameters for captive Sunda pangolins are vital to assess the health in these animals during health assessments. The objective of this study is to establish blood parameters for captive Sunda pangolins and compare the blood parameters with the established blood reference ranges for rescued wild Sunda pangolins in Singapore. Blood parameters for hematology and serum biochemistry were established from 13 clinically normal captive Sunda pangolins. Male captive Sunda pangolins were found to have significantly (P<0.05) higher potassium compared to the female captive Sunda pangolins. Captive Sunda pangolins were found to have significantly (P<0.05) lower white blood cell count (WBC), neutrophil counts, alanine phosphatase (ALP) and phosphorus and significantly (P<0.05) higher PCV, TP, globulin and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) when compared with rescued wild Sunda pangolins from the previous study.     

Hematology and biochemistry reference values for Ontario swine.

The purpose of this study was to establish blood reference values for Ontario swine from various age groups. Weanling pigs, feeder pigs, gilts and sows on 11 randomly selected swine farms were sampled using the orbital sinus bleeding technique. Routine hematological and biochemical determinations were performed using whole blood and serum. For the variables examined in each age group the means, the standard deviations and the 95% upper and lower limits were calculated.     

Hematology and serum biochemistry of free-ranging nutria (Myocastor coypus)

Information on reference blood values in the literature is lacking for many wild rodents. In this study, comprehensive reference intervals (RIs) for a wide range of analytes from 101 healthy free-ranging nutria were determined. Animals were captured in Buenos Aires, Argentina (37degrees 50'S, 57 degrees 34'W), and southward (38 degrees 60'S, 58 degrees 23'W), encompassing major biotopes of agricultural pampas with dunes and grassland steppes on the east coast. Traps were set at locations with high-density nutria populations (i.e., those areas that showed signs of movement, territorial marking, or feeding activities). Although the small sample size limits the interpretation of these findings, RIs were determined by a robust method using the central 95th percentile. In nutria, the RI range varied greatly for the leukocyte differentials, with mature neutrophils: 3,907-5,544/mmicrol for females and 3,744-5,900/microl for males; band neutrophils: 0-10/ll for females and 3-18/microl for males; lymphocytes: 4,213 5,940/microl for both sexes combined; monocytes: 165-402/microl for both sexes combined; eosinophils: 13-91/microl for females and 108-165/microl for males; and basophils: 0-87/microl for both sexes combined. Platelet concentration was 543-727 x 10(9)/L for both sexes combined. There was also a wide RI range for biochemistry values for some enzymes, such as alkaline phosphatase: 200-399 IU/L for both sexes combined; cholinesterase: 762-1,407 IU/L for females and 763-1,284 IU/L for males; creatine kinase: 182-552 IU/L for females and 162-451 IU/L for males; amylase: 853-1,865 IU/L for females and 779-1,293 IU/L for males; and glucose concentration 120.2-180.6 mg/dl for both sexes combined. Conversely, there was not a wide pooled RI range for calcium: 7.0-11.2 mg/dl; phosphorous: 6.1-9.3 mg/dl; sodium: 133.0-159.0 mEq/L; potassium: 3.0-8.2 mEq/L; chloride: 101.4-143.0 mEq/L; and urea: 11.3-36.8 mg/dl. The red blood cell indices had a narrow range, with mean corpuscular volume: 84.0 -102.5 fl and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration: 18.2-28.8 g/dl, and which was most likely due to strict physiologic controls. The results from this study were similar to those previously reported for farmed nutria.     

Hematology and biochemistry reference values for the ranch fox.

Reference hematology and biochemistry values are presented from a mixed population of 30 silver and red foxes of both sexes, reared and living under fox-farming conditions in southern Ontario. Based on history and physical examination, the animals in this study were clinically healthy at the time of blood collection and maintained under similar husbandry practices. The observations were examined for outliers and Gaussian distribution before and after one of three transformations. Parametric analysis was used to determine lower and upper reference limits. Where observations were not Gaussian, minimum and maximum values are given. These reference values are presented as a usable first approximation of population reference values to assist clinicians and researchers in their interpretation of observations obtained from foxes of similar populations.     

Hematology and biochemistry reference values for female Holstein cattle.

Reference intervals are presented for 14 hematology and 32 biochemistry variables from four age groups of female Holstein cattle (n = 172) selected randomly from six well managed farms. Each animal was examined by a clinician and with the history available considered to be clinically normal at the time of blood collection. The variable observations were examined for outliers and Gaussian distribution prior to parametric or where necessary, nonparametric analysis. Many differences were noted between age groups but few between farms.     

Serum biochemistry of captive and free-ranging gray wolves (Canis lupus).

Normal serum biochemistry values are frequently obtained from studies of captive sedentary (zoo) or free-ranging (wild) animals. It is frequently assumed that values obtained from these two populations are directly referable to each other. We tested this assumption using 20 captive gray wolves (Canis lupus) in Minnesota, USA, and 11 free-ranging gray wolves in Alaska, USA. Free-ranging wolves had significantly (P < 0.05) lower sodium, chloride, and creatinine concentrations and significantly higher potassium and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) concentrations; BUN to creatinine ratios; and alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and creatine kinase activities relative to captive wolves. Corticosteroid-induced alkaline phosphatase activity (a marker of stress in domestic dogs) was detected in 3 of 11 free-ranging wolves and in 0 of 20 captive wolves (P = 0.037). This study provides clear evidence that serum biochemical differences can exist between captive and free-ranging populations of one species. Accordingly, evaluation of the health status of an animal should incorporate an understanding of the potential confounding effect that nutrition, activity level, and environmental stress could have on the factor(s) being measured.     

Hematology and serum biochemistry comparison in wild and captive Central American river turtles (Dermatemys mawii) in Tabasco, Mexico

Hematological and serum biochemistry analyses were determined on 51 Central American river turtles (Dermatemys mawii) during the dry and rainy seasons of 2006. Turtles came from two sites: Pantanos de Centla Biosphere Reserve and a turtle breeding farm, both located in Tabasco State, Mexico. Physical examination and body measures of animals were performed. Incidence and prevalence of hemoparasites were explored.Captive organisms were in poor physical condition while wild turtles were apparently healthy. There were differences in several hematological parameters related with the condition and the season. During the dry season captive turtles exhibited higher levels of uric acid and urea, as well as lower levels of glucose. Haemogregarina sp. was detected in 100% of the wild individuals, but not in captive individuals. Its incidence was greater during the rainy season. This is the first health assessment and hematology study of this critically endangered species.     

Hematology and serum chemistry values of the lesser rhea (Pterocnemia pennata) raised in Patagonian farms (Argentina).

Hematologic and serum chemistry values were determined for chicks, juveniles, and adult farmed lesser rheas (Prerocnemia pennata). Blood samples were taken during March-April 1998 from the brachial veins of lesser rhea, including 64 chicks, 24 juveniles, and 36 adults, raised in Patagonian farms (Argentina). Lesser rhea chicks had significantly lower erythrocyte counts, hematocrit, hemoglobin, red cell indices, and copper than did the juveniles and adult individuals. No significant differences were observed between females and males. Most values were similar to those reported for other ratites. The data obtained provide hematologic and serum chemistry values for lesser rhea from farms.     

Effects of in vitro hemolysis on serum biochemistry values of the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus).

The effects of in vitro hemolysis on 23 biochemical analytes were assessed in sera from 14 clinically healthy Atlantic bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Each serum sample was divided into three portions for analysis: 1) nonhemolyzed control; 2) moderate hemolysis, simulated by adding hemolyzed serum to a final concentration of approximately 150 mg/dl Hb; and 3) severe hemolysis, simulated by adding hemolyzed serum to a final concentration of approximately 500 mg/dl Hb. Moderate hemolysis resulted in statistically significant increases in the mean values of iron, lactate dehydrogenase, potassium, and uric acid and a decrease in creatinine (P < 0.001). Severe hemolysis resulted in statistically significant changes in the mean values of the above analytes in addition to the following increases: alanine aminotransferase, calcium, and serum globulins (P < 0.001) and albumin and total protein (P < 0.01). Total bilirubin and gamma glutamyl transferase levels were lower in the severely hemolyzed sample (P < 0.001). Differences in mean values for alkaline phosphatase between nonhemolyzed and hemolyzed serum were not significant but did show a downward trend in the hemolyzed sera. The presence and severity of hemolysis must be considered in the interpretation of the serum chemistry values.     

Plasma biochemistry reference values of wild-caught southern stingrays (Dasyatis americana).

Stingrays are prominent marine animals; however, there are few published reference values for their blood chemistry and hematology. Twenty-eight southern stingrays (Dasyatis americana) were caught using the bottom trawl nets of fishery-independent boats operated by the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources during June and July 2002 from Winyah Bay, South Carolina, to St. Augustine, Florida. Median values of blood and plasma obtained from live animals promptly after capture are as follows: packed cell volume = 0.22 L/L (22%), total solids (TS) = 56.5 g/L (5.65 g/dl), total protein (TP) = 26 g/L (2.6 g/dl), sodium = 315 mmol/L, potassium = 4.95 mmol/L, chloride = 342 mmol/L, calcium = 4.12 mmol/L (16.5 mg/dl), phosphorus = 1.5 mmol/L (4.7 mg/dl), urea nitrogen = 444 mmol/L (1,243 mg/dl), glucose = 1.69 mmol/L (30 mg/dl), aspartate aminotransferase = 14.5 U/L, creatine phosphokinase = 80.5 U/L, osmolality = 1065 mOsm/kg, and lactate = 3.1 mmol/L. Bicarbonate was less than the low end of the instrument range (5 mmol/L) in all but three samples. Anion gap was negative in all samples. Albumin was less than the low end of the instrument range (1 g/dl) in all except one sample. Osmolality was significantly higher in the rays caught in the southern region. TS and TP values were linearly related to each other, and the equation for the fitted line is TS = (11.61 x TP) + 25.4 (in g/L) [or TS = (1.161 x TP) + 2.54 (in g/dl)]. The reference ranges reported in this study can be used to aid in the management of aquarium stingrays and to create a baseline for health monitoring of the wild Dasyatis spp.     

Hematology and serum chemistry values of the European brown hare

Background: Hematology and serum biochemistry values can be useful for evaluating the health of populations of captive and free-living European brown hares ( Lepus europaeus ). However, current information is fragmented and incomplete.
Objective: The objective of this study was to determine normal hematology and serum chemistry values for a population of captive European brown hares and to investigate differences related to sex and age.
Methods: Routine hematology and serum chemistry values were determined for 48 captive European brown hares in Catalonia (northeastern Spain): 21 young (6 males and 15 females) and 27 adult (14 males and 13 females) hares. Blood was obtained by auricular venipuncture while animals were physically restrained. Results were expressed as the mean ± SD, and reference intervals were calculated as the mean ± 2SD.
Results: RBC count, PCV, concentrations of hemoglobin, total protein, albumin, gamma globulin, urea nitrogen, and creatinine, and alanine aminotransferase activity were significantly higher in adults than in young hares, and alkaline phosphatase activity and total bilirubin concentration were lower. Sex differences were not observed.
Conclusions: Hematology and serum chemistry results obtained in this study are considered representative for healthy captive European brown hares. A single reference interval can be used for values from male and female hares, however, age-specific intervals are needed for some analytes.     

Blood thiamine values in captive adult African lions (Panthera leo).

Heparinized whole-blood samples from 22 adult African lions (Panthera leo) fed diets considered nutritionally adequate in 10 American Zoo and Aquarium Association member zoos in North America were provided for this study. Blood thiamine values were estimated using a standard microbiological assay method. The mean +/- standard deviation for blood thiamine values was 249.3 +/- 43.5 nmol/L with a range in values from 160 to 350 nmol/L after exclusion of one outlier. There were no differences (P > 0.05) in the mean blood thiamine values of male and female lions, or of lions that were over and under 10 yr of age. This range (160 to 350 nmol/L) is proposed as a reasonable estimate of the expected range in blood thiamine values for captive adult African lions as currently fed in North American zoos.