Changes in food supply in Mediterranean countries from 1961 to 2001

OBJECTIVE: To describe geographical differences and time trends in the supply of the most important food components of the traditional Mediterranean diet. DESIGN: Food supply data collected from national food balance sheets for the period 1961-2001. SETTING: Selected Mediterranean countries: Spain, Italy, France, Greece, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia and Turkey. RESULTS: Differences of almost 30-fold and five-fold were found in the supply of olive oil and fruits and vegetables, respectively, among the Mediterranean countries studied during the 1960s. A favourable increasing trend for the supply of fruit and vegetables was observed in most Mediterranean countries. However, an increase in the supply of meats and dairy products and a decrease in the supply of cereals and wine were observed in European Mediterranean countries from 1961 until 2001. Only in African and Asiatic Mediterranean countries were cereals the base of food supply. During the 1990s, Greece's food supply pattern was closest to the traditional Mediterranean diet, while Italy and Spain maintained a high availability of fruits, vegetables and olive oil, but were losing the other typical components. Among African and Asiatic Mediterranean countries, only Turkey presented a traditional Mediterranean dietary pattern except with respect to olive oil, the supply of which was very low. France showed a Western dietary pattern, with a high supply of animal products and a low supply of olive oil. CONCLUSIONS: Dietary supplies in the Mediterranean area were quite heterogeneous in the 1960s and have experienced a process of Westernization, especially in European Mediterranean countries.     

Traditional Mediterranean diet and longevity in the elderly: a review

OBJECTIVE: To review the evidence that the traditional Mediterranean diet is associated with longevity. SETTING: Elderly persons of both genders in Greece, Spain, Denmark and Australia studied by different groups of investigators. METHODS: Adherence to the principles of the Mediterranean diet was operationalised through a score devised a priori, and study participants were followed up until death or the end of the study. Proportional hazard models were used. RESULTS: Closer adherence to the Mediterranean diet was associated with a significant decrease in general mortality among the elderly persons studied. CONCLUSION: The Mediterranean diet is positively associated with longevity among the elderly. If the assumption holds that there is no interaction between age and diet with respect to general mortality, it can be inferred that the traditional Mediterranean diet represents a healthy nutritional pattern.     

The changing structure of diets in the European Union in relation to healthy eating guidelines

OBJECTIVE: Our objective in this paper is to assess diets in the European Union (EU) in relation to the recommendations of the recent World Health Organization/Food and Agriculture Organization expert consultation and to show how diets have changed between 1961 and 2001. DATA AND METHODS: Computations make use of FAOSTAT data on food availability at country level linked to a food composition database to convert foods to nutrients. We further explore the growing similarity of diets in the EU by making use of a consumption similarity index. The index provides a single number measure of dietary overlap between countries. RESULTS: The data confirm the excessive consumption by almost all countries of saturated fats, cholesterol and sugars, and the convergence of nutrient intakes across the EU. Whereas in 1961 diets in several European countries were more similar to US diets than to those of other European countries, this is no longer the case; moreover, while EU diets have become more homogeneous, the EU as a whole and the USA have become less similar over time. CONCLUSIONS: Although the dominant cause of greater similarity in EU diets over the period studied is increased intakes in Mediterranean countries of saturated fats, cholesterol and sugar, also important are reductions in saturated fat and sugar in some Northern European countries. This suggests that healthy eating messages are finally having an impact on diets; a distinctly European diet may also be emerging.     

Mediterranean diet in relation to body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio

OBJECTIVE: The Mediterranean diet is rich in fat and starch, and hence may be related to overweight. We therefore investigated the relationship between adherence to a Mediterranean diet and body mass index (BMI) and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR). DESIGN AND SETTING: Data were obtained from the control group of a network of case-control studies on cancer conducted in major teaching and general hospitals in four Italian areas between 1991 and 2002. An interviewer-administered validated 78-item food-frequency questionnaire was used to obtain information on the subjects' habitual diet. Information on socio-economic factors, lifestyle habits and anthropometric measures was also collected. A Mediterranean diet score (MDS) was derived on the basis of eight characteristics of the Mediterranean diet. SUBJECTS: Subjects were 6619 patients (3090 men, 3529 women) admitted to hospital for a wide spectrum of acute, non-neoplastic conditions, unrelated to known risk factors for cancer and long-term modifications of diet. RESULTS: In multiple linear regression models adjusted for age, study centre, education, tobacco smoking, occupational physical activity and total energy intake, the MDS was not related to BMI (beta = 0.05 for men and -0.04 for women) or WHR (beta = 0.000 and 0.001, respectively) in both sexes. CONCLUSIONS: Adherence to the major characteristics of the Mediterranean diet is unrelated to BMI and WHR, confirming previous data from Greece and Spain.     

气候波动对重庆水稻产量的影响及对策

选用代表重庆四个区域的江津、丰都、奉节、酉阳1960-2001年的气象及水稻产量资料,采用Mann-Kendall突变检测方法对水稻产量资料序列进行分段,利用Logistic曲线进行分段拟合求取水稻的趋势产量,进而得到气象产量,利用积分回归等方法分析气候因子对水稻产量的影响。结果表明：重庆四个地区的水稻单产均在20世纪80年代前期发生突变性增长;采用Logistic分段拟合趋势产量的效果明显优于线性拟合,体现了水稻的实际变化趋势;水稻的气象产量具有较明显的年际变化,表现出一定的阶段性,20世纪60年代初期、整个70年代、90年代中后期气象产量较低,而60年代中后期、80年代中期-90年代中前期水稻的气象产量相对较高;造成重庆水稻减产的主要因素为春季低温阴雨和伏旱等灾害,因此,应采取春季保温和增蓄伏前水等措施促进水稻增产丰收。     

Globalisation and income growth promote the Mediterranean diet

OBJECTIVE: To examine global food demand patterns and how changing diets may stimulate demand for and trade of Mediterranean diet products. DESIGN: Literature review. Trends in global and US food consumption patterns are examined and trade data are reviewed to evaluate the impact of changing diets on trade of Mediterranean diet products. Market access issues are also addressed briefly to highlight the role of policy in the trade of Mediterranean diet products. RESULTS: Diets are shifting towards higher-value products such as meats, fruits and vegetables, and a wider array of packaged food products. Trade in these products has also grown in the past two decades, with several non-traditional importers and exporters becoming increasingly active in the global market. CONCLUSIONS: Income-driven demands for quality and variety are likely to increase the demand for Mediterranean diet products globally. While the middle-income countries appear to be the best growth prospects, the USA remains a potential growth market if these products can meet the growing consumer demand for variety, quality and convenience. Although consumer trends globally indicate growth in demand for Mediterranean diet products, the additional demand may not be reflected by a corresponding growth in trade. Trade in Mediterranean diet products continues to be hampered by higher than average trade barriers and high transportation costs for perishables.     

Mediterranean Adequacy Index of Italian diets

OBJECTIVE: To assess, particularly in longitudinal studies, how close or far the food intakes of population groups are from a reference dietary pattern. DESIGN: Computation of an index, called the Mediterranean Adequacy Index (MAI), by dividing the sum of the percentage of total energy from typical Mediterranean food groups by the sum of the percentage of total energy from non-typical Mediterranean food groups. The reference Italian-Mediterranean diet utilised was that of subjects from Nicotera in 1960. SETTING: Different areas in Italy. SUBJECTS: Men aged 45-65 years at the start of the study from rural areas of Italy in the Seven Countries Study followed for 26 years (Crevalcore and Montegiorgio), elderly men and women from Perugia followed for 11 years, men and women from Pollica (Salerno) followed for 32 years, and families from Rofrano (Salerno) followed for 41 years. RESULTS: The median value of MAI among 40-59-year-old men from Nicotera in 1960 was 7.2; in Crevalcore it was 2.9 in 1965 and 2.2 in 1991; and in Montegiorgio, 5.6 in 1965 and 3.9 in 1991. In Pollica, the values in men ranged from 5.6 to 6.3 in 1967 and from 2.4 to 4.5 in 1999; for women, the corresponding ranges were 4.2-7.2 and 2.7-4.1. In elderly men of Perugia, median MAI value was 4.9 in 1976 and 3.2 in 1987; for women, the corresponding values were 3.1 and 2.6. CONCLUSIONS: The diet of these Italian population groups has changed over the last four decades, progressively abandoning the nutritional characteristics of the reference Italian-Mediterranean diet. The MAI proposed is simple to compute; it has satisfactory discriminating power particularly for longitudinal dietary data with only a few limitations.     

The importance of rice fields for glossy ibis (Plegadis falcinellus): Management recommendations derived from an individual-based model

Artificial wetlands provide alternative habitats for waterbirds. The Doñana rice fields (SW Spain) are extensively used as a foraging site by the glossy ibis (Plegadis falcinellus). The aim of this study was to develop an individual-based model to predict the possible effects of glossy ibis’ population growth, reductions in the rice cultivated area, and changes on the phenology of the management processes of the paddies on the mortality rate of the glossy ibis population. We test the hypothesis that the glossy ibis breeding population of Doñana can obtain its energy requirements during the non-breeding season by feeding on rice fields alone. Our results show that the glossy ibis population growth is not currently limited by rice field availability. However, a reduction of 80% would cause mortality rate increases above the observed mortality (5.9% per year), with values around 10% per year for populations between 50,000 and 100,000 birds. A reduction of 90% of the rice field area would cause mortality rate increase above the observed value for populations greater than 20,000 birds, reaching 60% per year with a population of 100,000 birds. Cultivated area in Doñana suffers temporary reduction on its area during drought periods. Taking into account the fact that the glossy ibis population for 2011 may exceed 22,900 birds, large scale changes in the area of rice fields due to habitat transformations and/or drought periods may have important effects on the viability of the glossy ibis population in Doñana.     

The effect of growth in stratospheric flight operations

Pollution of the stratosphere by aircraft is increasing because of the growth in air traffic and a general increase in aircraft cruise altitudes. This paper analyzes aircraft route frequencies on those routes where aircraft routinely fly above the tropopause, and estimates the fuel burned per year above the tropopause since 1960. Predictions to 1990 incorporate the increasing numbers of high-flying, wide-bodied subsonic aircraft, and the introduction of the civil supersonic transport. The factors which are important in quantifying stratospheric pollution are discussed. It is suggested that by 1990, within the rather large uncertainties inherent in these predictions, about 40% of the total fuel burned in the stratosphere could be by civil supersonic aircraft. From a breakdown of the various engine types in service, it is possible to estimate the nitrogen oxides emitted by aircraft. Nitrogen oxides emitted by civil supersonic aircraft in the stratosphere are estimated to be about 50% of the total by 1990, but because of the higher cruise altitudes of the supersonic fleet, the contribution from this source to the overall effects of these pollutants will be greater than that from subsonic aircraft.     

Mediterranean diet and cognitive decline

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the possible role of diet in age-related cognitive decline (ARCD) and cognitive impairment of both degenerative (Alzheimer's disease, AD) and vascular (vascular dementia, VaD) origin. DESIGN: Literature review. RESULTS: In an elderly population of southern Italy with a typical Mediterranean diet, high energy intake of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) appeared to be associated with a high level of protection against ARCD. In addition, dietary fat and energy in the elderly seem to be risk factors, while fish consumption and cereals are found to reduce the prevalence of AD in European and North American countries. Finally, the relative risk of dementia (AD and VaD) was lower in the subjects of a French cohort who drank three or four glasses of red wine each day compared with total abstainers. CONCLUSION: Essential components of the Mediterranean diet--MUFA, cereals and wine--seem to be protective against cognitive decline. As such, dietary antioxidants and supplements, specific macronutrients of the Mediterranean diet, oestrogens and anti-inflammatory drugs may act synergistically with other protective factors, opening up new therapeutic interventions for cognitive decline.     

Protection, promotion and support of breast-feeding in Europe: current situation

OBJECTIVE: To describe the current situation regarding protection, promotion and support of breast-feeding in Europe, as a first step towards the development of a blueprint for action. DESIGN AND SETTING: A questionnaire was completed by 29 key informants and 128 other informants in the EU, including member states, accession and candidate countries. RESULTS: EU countries do not fully comply with the policies and recommendations of the Global Strategy on Infant and Young Child Feeding that they endorsed during the 55th World Health Assembly in 2002. Some countries do not even comply with the targets of the Innocenti Declaration (1990). Pre-service training on breast-feeding practice is inadequate and in-service training achieves only low to medium coverage. The Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative is well developed only in three countries; in 19 countries, less than 15% of births occur in baby-friendly hospitals. The International Code of Marketing of Breastmilk Substitutes, endorsed in 1981 by all countries, is not fully applied and submitted to independent monitoring. The legislation for working mothers meets on average the International Labour Organization standards, but covers only women with full formal employment. Voluntary mother-to-mother support groups and trained peer counsellors are present in 27 and 13 countries, respectively. Breast-feeding rates span over a wide range; comparisons are difficult due to use of non-standard methods. The rate of exclusive breast-feeding at 6 months is low everywhere, even in countries with high initiation rates. CONCLUSIONS: EU countries need to revise their policies and practices to meet the principles inscribed in the Global Strategy on Infant and Young Child Feeding in order to better protect, promote and support breast-feeding.     

Agricultural trajectories in a Mediterranean mountain region (Priorat,NE Spain) as a consequence of vineyard conversion plans

In mountain regions of Mediterranean European countries, recent economic and technologic changes have involved the intensification of crops, based on heavy land levelling and/or terracing, and the abandonment or marginalization of traditional land use management. These trends have been reinforced by the subsidy policies of the European Union. The objectives of the present research were: (a) to contribute to the understanding of agricultural trajectories and farming systems that are entirely transforming the social and environmental characteristics of Mediterranean mountain areas, focusing on the analysis of the main agricultural trajectories in a sample area of this environment (the Priorat region, NE Spain) over the last 20 years (1986–2005); and (b) to analyse the farming systems that coexist in the region with regard to the landscape impacts they involve and the influence of CAP subsidies in each one. A methodological approach based on the combination of multivariate statistical techniques was used to obtain a better knowledge of the heterogeneity of farming systems on a local scale. The results show that, although most farms cultivate a mosaic of traditional crops and have small mechanized areas, a minority group follows a high intensification and specialization strategy based on new mechanized‐terraced vineyards. This group only comprises 12 per cent of the farmers in the region, but owns 61 per cent of the new vineyard plantations and 42 per cent of the total agricultural land, receiving most of the subsidies from the EU vineyard conversion and restructuring policy (68 per cent of total Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) subsidies assigned to the region). Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Food, youth and the Mediterranean diet in Spain. Development of KIDMED, Mediterranean Diet Quality Index in children and adolescents

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate dietary habits in Spanish children and adolescents based on a Mediterranean Diet Quality Index tool, which considers certain principles sustaining and challenging traditional healthy Mediterranean dietary patterns. DESIGN: Observational population-based cross-sectional study. A 16-item Mediterranean Diet Quality Index was included in data gathered for the EnKid study (in which two 24-hour recalls, a quantitative 169-item food-frequency questionnaire and a general questionnaire about socio-economic, demographic and lifestyle items were administered). SETTING: Spain. SUBJECTS: In total, 3850 children and youths aged 2-24 years residing in Spain. RESULTS: Of the sample, 4.2% showed very low KIDMED index results, 49.4% had intermediate values and 46.4% had high index results. Important geographical differences were seen, with subjects from the Northeast showing the most favourable outcomes (52% with elevated scores vs. 37.5% of those from the North). Lower percentages of high diet quality were observed in low socio-economic groups, compared with middle and upper income cohorts (42.8%, 47.6% and 54.9%, respectively). Large cities had more positive results and only slight variations were seen for gender and age. CONCLUSIONS: The KIDMED index, the first to evaluate the adequacy of Mediterranean dietary patterns in children and youth, confirms that this collective is undergoing important changes, which makes them a priority target for nutrition interventions. Results challenge certain commonly perceived notions tied to income level, population size and diet quality.     

LAND RESOURCES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN: STATUS,PRESSURES, TRENDS AND IMPACTS ON FUTURE REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT

The Mediterranean region covers about 854 million ha, but only 118 million (or 14 per cent) are suitable for agricultural production. In North Africa and the Middle East (MENA), agricultural land covers about 5 per cent; in Egypt and Algeria, it occupies less than 4 per cent and, in Libya, less than 2 per cent of the total national land area. Across the Mediterranean region land use divides between natural pastures/rangelands (ca. 15 per cent), forests and woodlands (ca. 8 per cent), with the ca. 63 per cent remaining desert sands, shallow, rocky, saline, sodic soils and areas effectively sealed by urbanisation. Land degradation is a severe problem in most Mediterranean countries. Estimates for the period 1961 to 2020 show that although the Mediterranean population is likely to more than double, ca. 8.3 million ha of agricultural land (7 per cent) may be lost as a result of continued urbanisation and land degradation. If these estimates are correct, agricultural land per capita would more than halve from ca. 0.48 ha (1961) to ca. 0.21 ha in 2020. Food security is likely to become increasingly problematic, especially in the MENA countries, which require a major reassessment of their agricultural development policy. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

河南省境内以淮河为界的南北气候变化差异分析

选取河南省9个观测站1954-2007年的气候资料,基于ArcGIS等软件,利用数理统计分析、线性回归等方法,分析了河南省境内受淮河影响的气候变化差异及对全球气候变化的区域响应特点。结果表明:河南省境内的南北气候分界线为淮河最大的支流沙颍河和秦岭东部分支所连成地带即34°40′-34°50′N。分析期内南、北部总体上呈增温趋势,但具有阶段性特点,60年代以前持续升温,60年代-80年代中期为降温时期,80年代中期后,南、北部同时开始剧烈升温。在80年代以前南、北部的年降水量均递减,80年代北部骤减、南部骤增,90年代以后南、北地区均增多。80年代为气候突变时期,90年代至今,保持高温多雨水特征,南北温差不断增大。     

近50a嘉陵江流域径流变化特征及影响因素

利用Mann-Kendall秩次相关趋势检验和累计平均滤波器及Mann-Kendall突变点检验,对嘉陵江流域北碚、亭子口、武都和武胜4个水文站1960-2009年的年径流数据分析得出,4个水文站年径流量均存在显著的减少趋势,且均于1991年前后存在突变点.对流域4个水文站的基准期与措施期建立降雨一径流双累积曲线方程,分析计算得出20世纪90年代人类活动和降雨对径流减少的影响程度基本相当,只有武都站人类活动影响程度稍高.     

巴彦淖尔市40年降雹气候特征分析

为提高巴彦淖尔市冰雹预报准确率,利用当地1961—2000年的降雹资料和2004—2008年的713雷达资料,采用数理统计、图表分析等方法,研究降雹的空间分布特征和时间演变规律;采用逐步聚类法对年降雹等级进行划分。结果得出：降雹一般出现在4—9月,主要集中在6月中旬-8月下旬,占总降雹日数68．6％;年降雹日数与灾雹日数存在线性相关;20世纪60年代、90年代降雹次数较少,80年代明显偏多;70年代末-80年代中期均为1级重灾年,90年代后基本为2级中等成灾年或3级轻灾年。研究结果可为巴彦淖尔市深入、有效开展防雹作业提供依据。     

Stocktake study of current fertilisation recommendations across Europe and discussion towards a more harmonised approach

The European Commission has set targets for a reduction in nutrient losses by at least 50% and a reduction in fertiliser use by at least 20% by 2030 while ensuring no deterioration in soil fertility. Within the mandate of the European Joint Programme EJP Soil ‘Towards climate-smart sustainable management of agricultural soils’, the objective of this study was to assess current fertilisation practices across Europe and discuss the potential for harmonisation of fertilisation methodologies as a strategy to reduce nutrient loss and overall fertiliser use. A stocktake study of current methods of delivering fertilisation advice took place across 23 European countries. The stocktake was in the form of a questionnaire, comprising 46 questions. Information was gathered on a large range of factors, including soil analysis methods, along with soil, crop and climatic factors taken into consideration within fertilisation calculations. The questionnaire was completed by experts, who are involved in compiling fertilisation recommendations within their country. Substantial differences exist in the content, format and delivery of fertilisation guidelines across Europe. The barriers, constraints and potential benefits of a harmonised approach to fertilisation across Europe are discussed. The general consensus from all participating countries was that harmonisation of fertilisation guidelines should be increased, but it was unclear in what format this could be achieved. Shared learning in the delivery and format of fertilisation guidelines and mechanisms to adhere to environmental legislation were viewed as being beneficial. However, it would be very difficult, if not impossible, to harmonise all soil test data and fertilisation methodologies at EU level due to diverse soil types and agro-ecosystem influences. Nevertheless, increased future collaboration, especially between neighbouring countries within the same environmental zone, was seen as potentially very beneficial. This study is unique in providing current detail on fertilisation practices across European countries in a side-by-side comparison. The gathered data can provide a baseline for the development of scientifically based EU policy targets for nutrient loss and soil fertility evaluation.     

Nutrition education and Mediterranean diet: exploring the teaching process of a school-based nutrition and media education project in Cretan primary schools

BACKGROUND: During the past few decades there has been a gradual abandoning of the traditional Mediterranean diet by the population of Crete and especially among the younger generations. Since this is related to the rapidly increasing morbidity and mortality rates from chronic diseases, the need for educating young people on the principles of good nutrition becomes increasingly important. It is also acknowledged that the epidemiological field needs to focus on studying the implementation process, since this will allow for a deeper understanding of the outcomes. OBJECTIVES: The aims of the present study were to explore the process of implementing an innovation in Cretan primary schools and to identify best teaching practices and principles. DESIGN: In three state primary schools on the island of Crete, 107 children took part in a 30-h nutrition and media education programme. Classroom observations were used to define attitudes towards the programme and teaching methods. Besides baseline and post evaluation, the pupils were also interviewed about 11 months after the end of the programme. IMPLEMENTATION: During observation of the teaching process, emerging issues were the teacher's motivation and interest in the course, his/her preparation before each class, teaching ability and communication skills, the respect and discipline he/she kept and the innovative teaching methods used. In some cases researcher intervention in the classroom could not be avoided. FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS: Overall, individual teacher willingness and teaching skills were mainly responsible for the quality of teaching, the variety of educational methods used in classrooms and pupils' interest in the course. Changes in pupils' knowledge and recall of the course were related to teacher enthusiasm but also to researcher intervention. Exploring the teaching and learning process allowed a deeper understanding of the data. It is concluded that attempts to introduce the principles of a Mediterranean diet to children through nutrition education require innovative, enthusiastic and highly motivated teachers.     

环江流域90年代水沙变化研究及治理方略探讨

 根据实测水文资料,对泾河2级支流环江流域20世纪90年代水沙变化进行了较为深入的分析和研究,利用3种方法计算环江流域90年代综合治理的减洪减沙效益;分析了流域地下径流补给变化情况,估算了流域地表水资源利用率;对环江流域水资源开发利用及今后治理方略进行了探讨。研究结果表明:进入90年代后,环江流域最大24h降雨量明显增大,径流、泥沙大幅度增加,单位(mm)有效降雨产洪产沙量为4个阶段的最大值。流域综合治理措施减洪减沙作用减弱,地下径流补给情况有所好转,地表水资源利用率不高。据此提出了环江流域综合治理的总方略,可供环江流域水土保持生态工程建设参考。