Climate and soil salinity in the deserts of Central Asia

A comparative analysis of climatic and soil salinity characteristics of the deserts of Central Asia, including deserts of the Turan Depression, the Gobi Desert, and deserts of the Dzungar and Tarim depressions was performed. The climatic characteristics—the degree of aridity, the degree of continentality, and the amount and regime of precipitation—are different in these deserts. No direct relationships between the areas occupied by the automorphic salt-affected soils and the aridity of the climate are observed in the studied regions. In the automorphic landscapes of Asian deserts, the degree and chemistry of the soil salinization and the distribution of salt-affected soils are controlled by the history of the particular territories rather than by their modern climatic conditions. The presence and properties of the salt-bearing rocks and the eolian migration of salts play the most significant role. The deficit of moisture in the modern climate favors the preservation of salt accumulations in places of their origin. The specific features of the climate, including the regime of precipitation, affect the redistribution of salts in the profiles of automorphic salt-affected soils. An increase in the degree of climatic continentality is accompanied by the decrease in the intensity of weathering and initial accumulation of salts. A different situation is observed in the soils of hydromorphic desert landscapes, in which the degree of salinity of the surface horizons and the area occupied by salt-affected soils are directly influenced by the modern climatic conditions.     

自由活塞发动机进气及压缩终了缸内气体流动特性分析

为组织好自由活塞发动机缸内气体流动,以提高可燃混合气混合质量,进而改善发动机燃烧质量,依据自由活塞运动特点,建立自由活塞发动机系统仿真模型,采用数值模拟方法对进气冲程和压缩冲程缸内流场进行仿真研究。分析结果表明,在进气冲程和压缩冲程时间之和一定情况下,进气冲程活塞运动快慢对进气终了缸内工质运动强度影响不大;快速压缩可提高压缩终了缸内工质运动强度,压缩终了单位质量湍动能在压缩冲程时间占进气冲程时间与压缩冲程时间总和45%时高达4.883 m2/(s2·kg),比压缩冲程时间占进气冲程时间与压缩冲程时间总和55%时高40%。采用慢进气快压缩的活塞运动规律,增大了压缩终了缸内流场运动强度,有利于火焰传播。该研究为组织缸内气体流动提供参考,对提高发动机性能具有重要意义。     

Assessment of the postagrogenic transformation of soddy-podzolic soils: Cartographic and analytic support

The results of experimental studies of the postagrogenic transformation of loamy soddy-podzolic soils on the southern slope of the Klin-Dmitrov Moraine Ridge are discussed. A chronosequence of soils (arable soils (cropland)-soils under fallow with meadow vegetation-soils under secondary forests of different ages-soils under a conventionally initial native forest) was examined, and the stages of the postagrogenic transformation of the automorphic soddy-podzolic soils were identified. The differentiation of the former plow horizon into the A1 and A1A2 horizons (according to the differences in the humus content, texture, and acidity) served as the major criterion of the soil transformation. A stage of textural differentiation with clay depletion from the uppermost layer was identified in the soils of the 20- to 60-year-old fallows. The specificity of the postagrogenic transformation of the soils on the slopes was demonstrated. From the methodological point of view, it was important to differentiate between the chronosequences of automorphic and semihydromorphic soils of the leveled interfluves and the soils of the slopes. For this purpose, a series of maps reflecting the history of the land use and the soil cover pattern was analyzed. The cartographic model included the attribute data of the soil surveys, the cartographic sources (a series of historical maps of the land use, topographic maps, remote sensing data, and a digital elevation model), and two base maps: (a) the integral map of the land use and (b) the map of the soil combinations with the separation of the zonal automorphic, semihydromorphic, and erosional soil combinations. This scheme served as a matrix for the organization and analysis of the already available and new materials.     

The use of algae-cyanobacterial communities for the assessment of lead pollution of gray forest soils

The effect of lead acetate on the characteristics of the algae-cyanobacterial communities of a gray forest soil was studied in a model experiment. The investigation was carried out using the method of water-soil cultures. The advantages and disadvantages of the application of this method for the ecotoxicological experiments are considered. The species of cyanobacteria and algae tolerant and sensitive to heavy metals were revealed. The addition of lead acetate at doses of 750 and 1500 mg/kg to soil caused a decrease in the species diversity and abundance of the cyanobacteria and algae, a reduction of the total content of chlorophyll, and changes in the morphology of individuals, whereas a dose of 300 mg/kg stimulated the development of the algae-cyanobacterial communities. The effect observed is suggested to be due to the double action of the salt: the adverse influence of the lead cations, and the positive influence of the acetate anions and the protective function of the soil. The use of a complex of different parameters of the biological organization of the communities at the cell, organism, and community levels results in the objective and complete assessment of the toxicant effects on the algae-cyanobacterial community of the gray forest soil.     

基于灌溉制度优化和种植结构调整的用水总量控制

该文以农业耗水总量及灌溉取水总量为约束条件,采用优化灌溉制度和种植结构调整措施下京郊农业发展面积阈值。结果表明:1)采用优化灌溉制度措施能显著降低研究区农业耗水量与灌溉量,使区域农业耗水总量低于耗水总量控制指标及其使农业灌溉量取水总量低于其多年实际平均水平,但是农业灌溉取水总量仍超过其控制指标;2)在北京市大兴区减少耗水量高的露地蔬菜与冬小麦的种植面积,增加灌溉量少且耗水较低的夏玉米种植面积,同时进一步发展农业用水效率较高的设施农业面积,能够满足农业灌溉取水总量与耗水量总量控制指标,且符合国家规划稳定粮食产量与提高蔬菜产量的要求;3)满足灌溉取水总量控制下农业发展面积阈值为4.60?104~7.42?104 hm2,而满足耗水总量控制下农业发展面积阈值为6.72?104~9.48?104 hm2,而同时满足2种约束条件下农业发展面积阈值为7.42?104 hm2;4)在维持用水总量不变情况下,随着设施农业发展面积扩大,传统农业发展面积相应减少,但因用水总量约束值差异设施农业与传统农业的发展阈值并不完全一致。可见,为维持区域水资源持续高效利用,确保区域农业健康发展,势必采用优化灌溉制度与种植结构调整等节水措施,控制农业发展阈值在合理范围内,才能使区域农业用水总量不能突破灌溉取水总量与耗水总量的控制指标。研究对类似京郊资源性缺水地区农业健康发展具有重要参考价值。     

The genesis of vertisols with gilgai microtopography: A review

Different hypotheses about the genesis of gilgai microtopography and corresponding soil complexes with clayey swelling soils are considered in this review. Their diversity is stipulated by specificities of the objects themselves and by the history of studies of the composition, properties, regimes, and landscape conditions of the areas with Vertisols in different countries. Most of the hypotheses about the genesis of Vertisols with the gilgai microtopography suggest that strong swelling–shrinking processes take place in these soils in the course of moistening–drying cycles; the origin of shear stress in the soils, its spatial patterns, and the particular ways of translocation of the soil material are discussed. At the early stage of Vertisol studies, a hypothesis about the leading role of the process of “self-swallowing” of the soils as a result of filling of open cracks with the material from the upper soil horizons was popular. However, numerous facts suggest that the intensity of this process is relatively low, so that it cannot play the major role in the gilgai formation and cyclic changes in the thickness and properties of the soil horizons in Vertisols. Another important mechanism is the uneven moistening and drying of the whole soil volume resulting in the irregular distribution of inner tensions in the soil with the development of shear stress and plastic deformation of the soil mass. The hypotheses suggested in the recent decades are based on the models of soil mechanics. A number of hypotheses consider possible alternation and duration of evolutionary stages of the development of Vertisols with the gilgai microtopography.     

锥形改流体下部孔径对筒仓卸料流态的影响

为了获取锥形改流体（cone-in-cone）下部孔径对筒仓内卸料流态和仓壁压力的影响,实现中心流筒仓内物料流态从中心流到整体流的转变,改善筒仓内物料流动环境,建立模型,用试验验证模型是正确的,该文采用离散元法对三维筒仓中ABS球卸料过程进行了数值模拟。数值模拟结果表明：筒仓卸料口尺寸不变时,减小锥形改流体下部孔径,整体流系数增大,筒仓内物料流态能够从中心流转变为整体流,筒仓壁峰值压力减小且峰值压力位置上移。改流体倾角为120°、135°时,当锥形改流体距筒仓锥形壁面的距离与锥形改流体下部孔径的比值大于等于1时,能实现从中心流到整体流的转变。该研究基于数值模拟结果提出了锥形改流体的设计标准,可为工程上确定改流体结构、位置参数提供参考。     

Digitized version of the state soil map on a scale of 1 : 1 M: Problems and solutions

Problems of the creation of a high-quality digitized version of the State Soil Map (SSM) on a scale of 1 : 1 M for the European part of Russia are discussed. Sheets of the SSM have been compiled for the entire territory of Russia. For the European part of Russia, they have been digitized, and a corresponding geographic information system has been created. At present, the attribute database to the map is being developed. In the course of the digitization of separate sheets of the map and the creation of a general legend, certain drawbacks of the map have been revealed. They are related to the insufficient completeness of information on the genesis of soil-forming rocks shown on different sheets; to the inconsistency in the names of some soils; and to the use of the same conventional signs for describing the soil texture in the upper horizons and in the parent material, which is incorrect in the case of texture-differentiated soils. The reasons for these drawbacks of the original map are explained. It is stressed that the SSM is a highly informative map that has played a crucial role in the development of pedology and soil cartography in Russia. A digitized version of this map makes it possible to introduce certain corrections to the original map sheets. The essence of the first stage of the work on the correction of the SSM in the digitized version and the methods applied for this purpose are characterized. Problems related to the creation of the database for the digitized version of this map are also discussed.     

水轮机调速器功率调节模式下负荷调节过渡过程稳定性研究

作为电力系统中调峰调频的骨干电源,水电机组负荷调节过渡过程稳定性对电网安全运行及源网协调意义重大。该文采用理论分析及数值仿真的方法对水轮机调速器功率模式下负荷调节过渡过程的稳定性进行了深入分析,得出了以调速器参数为变量的机组运行稳定域,并推导出满足稳定性的判别式。分析了水流惯性、接力器响应特性以及水轮机特性对稳定域的影响,得出水流惯性不利于系统的稳定,而接力器响应特性对系统稳定性有利,及水轮机特性最不利工况为水轮机综合特性系数与水轮机传递系数ey乘积值最大处。该文的研究成果能够准确地找到负荷调节稳定性的最不利工况,有效的指导水轮机调速器功率模式下参数整定,保障水电机组的稳定运行。     

Soil development on the Crimean Peninsula in the Late Holocene

The study of soils of different ages in different physiographic regions of the Crimean Peninsula made it possible to reveal the main regularities of pedogenesis in the Late Holocene (in the past 2800 years). With respect to the average rate of the development of soil humus horizons, the main types of soils in the studied region were arranged into the following sequence: southern chernozems and dark chestnut soils > mountainous forest brown soils > gravelly cinnamonic soils. In the newly formed soils, the accumulation of humus developed at a higher rate than the increase in the thickness of humus horizons. A sharp decrease in the rates of development of soil humus profiles and humus accumulation took place in the soils with the age of 1100-1200 years. The possibility for assessing the impact of climate changes on the pedogenetic process on the basis of instrumental meteorological data was shown. The potential centennial fluctuations of the climate in the Holocene determined the possibility of pulsating shifts of soil-geographic subzones within the steppe part of the Crimea with considerable changes in the rates of the development of soil humus horizons in comparison with those in the Late Holocene.     

湿干循环下膨胀土渠道边坡的破坏模式及稳定性

针对北疆地区膨胀土渠道因季节性通水导致的边坡失稳破坏问题,通过建立简化地质条件的离心模型试验,得到了湿干循环下膨胀土渠道边坡的变形及破坏特征,提出了由渠道通水、停水引起的湿干循环下膨胀土渠道边坡的破坏模式;在此基础上,利用GeoStudio软件分析了不同裂隙分布形式对膨胀土渠道边坡渗流特性及稳定性的影响。结果表明:运行过程中渠基膨胀土开裂是引起渠道边坡发生浅层失稳破坏的决定性因素;渠道因季节性通水造成的湿干循环作用下膨胀土渠道边坡破坏模式主要由“子土块”剥落破坏及“后缘张拉裂隙的扩展”2种破坏相互混合叠加构成。对比数值模型中不同后缘裂隙深度下渠坡的安全系数可知,当裂隙贯穿区深度为0.5 m时(工况1),对应的安全系数下降幅度约为60%,但此时的安全系数仍较大,渠坡可视为稳定;而当裂隙贯穿区深度继续增加至1 m时,渠道的安全系数下降幅度达到约74%,此刻的安全系数接近一级安全等级阈值(1.25),渠坡虽仍为稳定,但已经具备了失稳的可能。边坡的浅层破坏主要由“子土块”剥落模式决定,而后缘张拉裂隙的扩展对渠坡的失稳起到促进作用。此外,数值模拟结果还显示裂隙的存在加剧了坡面表层土体的孔压波动,易造成表层“子土块”的剥落。研究成果为进一步揭示季节性通水诱发的膨胀土渠道灾变提供了参考依据。     

Specific features of the morphology and chemical properties of coarse-textured postagrogenic soils of the southern taiga,Kostroma oblast

The properties of loamy sandy postagrogenic soils in the course of their natural overgrowing were studied in the southeastern part of Kostroma oblast. Micromorphological indications of tillage were preserved in these soils at least 35–40 years after the cessation of their agricultural use. In the course of the soil overgrowing with forest vegetation, the bulk density of the upper part of the former plow horizon decreased, the pH and the ash content of the litter horizon somewhat lowered with a simultaneous increase in the acidity of the upper mineral horizon, especially at the beginning of the formation of the tree stand. In 5–7 years after the cessation of tillage, the former plow horizon was differentiated with respect to the organic carbon content. The total pool of organic carbon in the upper 30 cm increased. In the course of the further development, in the postagrogenic soil under the 90to 100-year-old forest, the organic carbon pool in this layer became lower. The soil of the young fallow (5–7 years) was characterized by the higher values of the microbial biomass in the upper mineral horizon in comparison with that in the plowed soil. In general, the microbial biomass in the studied postagrogenic ecosystems (the soils of the fields abandoned in 2005 and 2000 and the soil under the secondary 40-year-old forest) was lower than that in the soil of the subclimax 90to 100-year-old forest. The enzymatic activity of the soils tends to increase during the succession. The restoration of the invertase and, partly, catalase activities to the values typical of the soils under mature forests takes place in about 40 years.     

4UZL-1型甘薯联合收获机薯块交接输送机构设计

为了解决4UZL-1型甘薯联合收获机作业过程中损失率大、伤薯率高等问题,该研究在分析4UZL-1型甘薯联合收获机整机结构的基础上开展薯块交接输送机构设计。以薯块交接输送过程中伤薯率和损失率为主要评价指标,在单因素试验基础上运用Box-Benhnken试验方法,以挖掘输送机构角度、刮板链输送角度、挖掘输送机构速度、刮板链输送速度为试验因素,对4UZL-1型甘薯联合收获机薯块交接输送机构工作参数进行四因素三水平试验研究,建立了评价指标对各因素的多元回归模型,分析了各因素对作业质量的影响,并得到了最优结构和作业参数。试验结果表明:各因素对损失率从大到小的影响顺序为刮板链输送角度、挖掘输送机构速度、刮板链输送速度、挖掘输送机构角度;各因素对伤薯率从大到小的影响顺序为挖掘输送机构速度、挖掘输送机构角度、刮板链输送速度、刮板链输送角度;当机器前进速度为1 m/s,挖掘输送机构角度为20°、刮板链输送角度为68°、挖掘输送机构速度为1.2 m/s、刮板链输送速度0.67 m/s时,薯块损失率为1.12%、损伤率为0.94%,与预测值相比,误差分别为3.4%和1.1%。研究结果可为甘薯联合收获机的结构完善和作业参数优化提供参考。     

吉林省西部苏打盐碱土改良研究

通过盆栽及田间生物试验，结合室内分析，重点研　究了改良剂硫酸铝和地膜覆盖对盐碱地旱田的改良效果．结果表明：强碱性苏打盐碱土中添　加改良剂硫酸铝后，土壤平衡溶液的ｐＨ值明显下降，Ｃａ２＋＋Ｍｇ２＋、Ｋ＋及Ｎａ＋　离子浓度明显增加，土壤的吸水量和吸水速度、毛管水上升高度和速度明显提高．旱田施用　硫酸铝后，大粒径微团聚体数量明显增多，土壤容重变小，孔隙度增大．盆栽条件下，随硫酸铝用量（０％－０．８％）的增加，作物出苗率及生长状况逐渐变好；田间条件下，施用改良　剂和覆膜对玉米出苗率及苗期生长均有良好作用，但玉米产量则以硫酸铝加覆膜的处理最高．     

黄土高原坡沟系统土壤侵蚀研究进展

坡沟系统是黄土高原重要的流域组成单元,是小流域侵蚀产沙的主要源地,又是控制水土流失、恢复与重建生态环境的基本治理单元,对其侵蚀现象与规律的探究,可为黄土高原地区土壤侵蚀治理措施的优化配置提供重要科学依据.对黄土高原坡沟系统的侵蚀方式、侵蚀形态的垂直分带性、坡沟系统侵蚀泥沙的来源、上方来水来沙对坡沟系统土壤侵蚀的影响、草被覆盖及其空间分布对坡沟系统侵蚀影响、淤地坝在坡沟系统土壤侵蚀研究中的应用等进行综述,指出在今后的研究中需要进一步开展侵蚀垂直分带结果和上方来水来沙对坡沟系统土壤侵蚀影响的定量分析,加强坡沟系统侵蚀泥沙来源、淤地坝对坡沟系统土壤侵蚀影响以及野外原状坡沟系统草被覆盖和空间分布对坡沟系统侵蚀影响的研究.     

The first digital maps of biological productivity parameters

The databases and maps of the phytomass, mortmass, and annual production for Northern Eurasia published by N.I. Bazilevich in 1993 historically played an important role in the intensification of studies of the biological productivity of plant ecosystems in the countries of the former Soviet Union. The development of biological science in the last decades emphasized the priority and importance of these studies. This work presents the results of the formal processing of the digitized original maps of the phytomass, mortmass, and annual production compiled by Bazilevich for the natural zones and natural-agricultural provinces in the entire territory of the former Soviet Union. The values averaged for the entire territory of the former Soviet Union were 218.2 Gt of raw material (1 Gt = 10⁹ t) for the phytomass reserves, 81.4 Gt for the mortmass, and 15.7 Gt/ha for the annual production. These are the theoretical estimates of the potential reserves of plant organic matter in the land systems of Northern Eurasia without consideration for the anthropogenic impacts (the infrastructure, settlements, land use, etc.) and the natural destruction processes. These estimates are not only of historical interest but they also quantitatively characterize the initial state of the ecosystems in the former Soviet Union for the assessment of the dynamics of the production process on the threshold of the epoch of global changes.     

Normatives of changes in the physical properties of chernozems in the forest-steppe zone of European Russia under conditions of their intensive agricultural use

Normatives of changes in the physical properties of plowed typical and leached heavy loamy and light clayey chernozems under their intensive agricultural use are developed for two major provinces of the forest-steppe zone of European Russia. The limits of the optimal, permissible, and critical values of the physical properties of the plow layer for crop growth are determined. It is shown that the variation in the physical properties of the plow layer of chernozems is determined not only by the zonal-provincial features but also by the period and type of their use and the farming standards. In the plow layer, the natural differences in the physical properties of chernozems at the subtype level are significantly leveled by agrotechnical measures and the similar requirements of cultivated crops. Upon high farming standards, the physical properties of plowed chernozems on fields with high and moderate fertility levels remain close to the optimum or permissible values. The technogenic compaction of the plow layer of chernozems of different textures in the forest-steppe zone and the corresponding decrease in the yield of cereals are predicted on the basis of known models. The developed normatives of changes in the physical properties of cultivated chernozems can be applied to assess the modern state of the physical conditions of these soils and the tendencies of their alteration; they can serve as a basis for improving regional systems of land use.     

半自动压缩基质型西瓜钵苗移栽机成穴器参数优化

在圆饼状压缩基质型西瓜钵苗移栽时,由于栽植机形成的穴形质量不佳,会造成钵苗倾斜。根据西瓜钵苗的移栽农艺要求,结合旱地移栽机械作业的特点,开展了半自动压缩基质型西瓜钵苗移栽机的成穴器参数优化研究。分析了成穴器的运动机理,建立了栽植穴的参数方程,得出理论成穴深度是影响穴口上部纵长的主要因素;利用离散元法对成穴器成穴过程进行仿真分析,验证成穴器结构参数与运动参数的合理性,探明了小端直径不同的成穴器在不同理论成穴深度的成穴效果;结合田间试验对成穴器参数进行优化,试验结果表明,成穴器小端直径为60 mm,理论成穴深度为65 mm时,所成穴形有利于圆饼状压缩基质型西瓜钵苗栽植;仿真及试验结果表明,穴口上部纵长、穴口上部宽度和有效成穴深度的仿真结果与试验结果之间的误差最小值、最大值和平均值分别为0.34%、12.78%、6.7%;7.23%、20.87%、12.33%;1.79%、17.92%、10.46%。该研究为成穴器的优化改进提供参考。     

基于弹性地基梁理论的梯形渠道混凝土衬砌冻胀力学模型

冻胀破坏是寒区渠道衬砌破坏的主要方式,建立合理的冻胀力学模型是渠道衬砌抗冻胀设计的基础。该文基于Winkler假定,将渠道基土的冻胀效应等效为一组相互独立且垂直或平行于衬砌板的弹簧。冻胀量通过弹簧的伸长量体现,冻胀力通过弹簧被压缩产生的反力体现。结合梯形渠道冻胀时衬砌板的受力特点,应用SL23-2006《渠系工程抗冻胀设计规范》冻胀量的计算成果,建立基于弹性地基梁理论的梯形渠道混凝土衬砌冻胀力学模型,其合理性通过与甘肃省靖会总干渠梯形渠道的前人试验和数值模拟结果进行比较验证。结果表明,该文模型计算的冻胀量和冻胀反力的分布规律与前人的试验和数值模拟基本吻合;计算的冻胀量和试验结果整体相对平均误差为4.72%,计算结果合理。该文模型与现行规范推荐的冻胀量计算成果有机衔接,可为寒区渠道抗冻胀设计提供参考。     

Features of the soil cover of the Vetluga-Unzhensk interfluvial area (Northeast of the Kostroma oblast)

This paper reveals the features of the soil cover of the territory of the Vetluga-Unzhensk interfluvial area, which is adjacent to the northern part of Uvaly, where contrasting combinations of alpha-humic and organo-accumulative soils are widespread. This is due to abruption of the clayey rocks of the Triassic age on the background of fluvioglacial sand sediments of the Dnieper glaciation, which is due to the complicated history of the formation of the relief of the characterized territory.