Attractiveness of three weed species to polyphagous predators and their influence on aphid populations in adjacent lettuce cultivations

The utilization of olfactory responses of predators and ­parasitoids to the allelochemicals emitted by phytophagous arthropods and their host plants is becoming more important in biological pest control. The effects of three weed ­species, i.?e. wormwood Artemisia vulgaris L., tansy Tanacetum vulgare L. and stinging nettle Urtica dioica L., which were planted as accompanying vegetations into a lettuce field, were examined for the predatory species Coccinella septempunctata L., Adalia bipunctata (L.), Propylea quatuordecimpunctata (L.) (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae) and Chrysoperla carnea (Steph.) (Neuroptera, Chrysopidae), as well as for aphids during the summer of 2000. The presence of weeds significantly increased the density of adults and larvae of the predators on the lettuce plants in relation to the control (lettuce field without weeds). However, the differences remained smaller for eggs and pupae. C. septempunctata tended to be the most abundant species, followed by P. quatuordecimpunctata. Remarkable differences among the attractiveness levels of the weeds in the 3 treatments were not observed. The increased populations of predators were accompanied by significantly reduced infestation rates with aphids in the treatments in relation to the control. Myzus persicae Sulzer was in general the most abundant aphid species followed by Nasonovia ribisnigri Mosley and Macrosiphum euphorbiae Thomas. The results of the present study are discussed with respect to the management of agroecosystems and the use of weeds in biological control.     

Molecular determination of the predator community of a cassava whitefly in Colombia: pest-specific primer development and field validation

In South America, the whitefly Aleurotrachelus socialis is one of the principal pests of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), reaching high population levels throughout the Andean region. Management of this species is primarily based upon the use of insecticides, while biological control has received limited attention. Till present, knowledge of A. socialis natural enemies is restricted to occasional records of predators and parasitoids. In this study, we developed PCR primer sets specific for the cassava whitefly, A. socialis, to identify their predator community in Colombian cassava. Eleven percent of 586 predator specimens (representing 131 taxa from 29 families) tested positive for cassava whitefly DNA. Of the 21 predator taxa that consumed cassava whiteflies, an unidentified netwing beetle (Lycidae), an unidentified spider species (Araneae), Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), a Cereaochrysa sp. (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), and a Leucochrysa sp. (Chrysopidae) were the taxa that consumed cassava whiteflies most frequently under field conditions. Two abundant predators in the system, Delphastus sp. (Coccinellidae) and the long-legged fly, Condylostylus sp. (Diptera: Dolichopodidae), were both positive for whitefly DNA, but did not have the strongest trophic linkage to the pest relative to other predators. This study shows that a diverse predator community affects cassava whitefly in southern Colombia, and provides the groundwork for the design of cassava production systems with minimal pesticide inputs.     

四川省大邑县舞毒蛾天敌的研究*

１９９３年在大邑县共收集到舞毒蛾天敌３０种，其中寄生性昆虫１９种，捕食性昆虫９种，病毒和虫霉菌各１种。卵期平均寄生率为２７．０６％±０．５４％，大蛾卵跳小蜂是主要天敌。幼虫期天敌有病毒、斑痣悬茧蜂、毒蛾镶颚姬蜂和绒茧蜂等，平均杀死幼虫５１．５９％±６．４８％。蛹期主要天敌有寄蝇、广大腿小蜂和脊腿囊爪姬蜂等，平均寄生率达３２．９１％±２６．４０％。在舞毒蛾卵－蛹期，累计约有８７．６２％的个体被天敌致死。     

Defoliation and growth relationships for mid-rotation Sitka spruce attacked by the green spruce aphid, Elatobium abietinum (Walker) (Homoptera: Aphididae)

Green spruce aphid (Elatobium abietinum) feeds primarily on the 1-year-old and older needle leaves of spruce (Picea spp.) and is a major defoliator of commercial Sitka spruce plantations in the UK and other maritime regions of north-west Europe. The impact of E. abietinum on mid-rotation (23-28-year-old) Sitka spruce in Radnor Forest, in mid-Wales, was determined by comparing aphid population densities, defoliation and growth between plots of trees that were either treated with insecticide or were left untreated. The experimental treatments were maintained for 5 years and over this period (2002-2006) peak E. abietinum densities in the untreated plots varied from 5 to 36 aphids per 100 needles. These densities, which were representative of low to moderate rates of infestation, were associated with low rates of defoliation (0-8%), but they had a significant (P ? 0.01) impact on mean radial increment (RI) and mean volume increment (VI). In 2005, the year with the highest aphid populations, peak densities in the untreated plots averaged 14 aphids per 100 needles and this rate of infestation reduced RI by 17%, VI by 10% and the dry weight of current-year needles by 10%. On average, across all years, infestation by E. abietinum reduced mean annual VI by 6%. Comparisons with previous studies on the impact of the aphid on 4-year-old, 7-year-old and 9-year-old Sitka spruce (Straw et al., 2005) indicate that defoliation by E. abietinum, on a per capita basis, decreases as trees grow older, but that the impact on VI increases. The different growth response of young and mid-rotation Sitka spruce to infestation is related to differences in canopy structure, particularly in the ratio of current-year needles to older needles, and the greater demands on photosynthetic production in older trees that arise from the need to support an increasing quantity of non-photosynthetic structural tissues in branches, stem and roots.     

秦皇岛市美国白蛾天敌调查研究

通过对美国白蛾各个发育期的天敌进行调查与研究,发现除了捕食性天敌七星瓢虫、大刀螳螂等外,幼虫期有2种寄生性天敌、蛹期有12种寄生性天敌,这为保护和利用天敌、有效控制美国白蛾提供了依据。     

Variation in the abundance of invertebrate predators of the green spruce aphid Elatobium abietinum (Walker) (Homoptera: Aphididae) along an altitudinal transect

Green spruce aphid Elatobium abietinum (Walker) is a major defoliator of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) in north-west Europe and other parts of the world that have a mild and wet maritime climate. Periods of cold weather during the winter currently limit E. abietinum populations and the amount of damage, but as mean winter temperatures rise in response to global climate change, overwinter survival of the aphid is likely to improve and the risk of severe and more widespread defoliation will increase. Populations of E. abietinum are also influenced by mortality caused by generalist invertebrate predators, although the extent to which predation might modify the response of E. abietinum to climate change is unclear. In this study, the response of generalist predators to changes in environmental conditions and potential increases in E. abietinum populations was evaluated by sampling invertebrate predators in the canopy of Sitka spruce along an altitudinal gradient from 310 m to 610 m above sea-level. Variation in predator abundance was related to local climate and aphid numbers. Population densities of E. abietinum differed widely between altitudes, and showed different patterns in different years, but mean densities over the 3-year study were highest at mid altitudes. In contrast, the majority of invertebrate predators (coccinellid and cantharid beetles, syrphid larvae, brown lacewings, spiders and harvestmen) were most abundant at low altitudes. Their abundance was not correlated with E. abietinum densities, but coincided with the more favourable climatic conditions at low altitudes and the availability of alternative prey. The association of low population densities of E. abietinum with greater general abundance of invertebrate predators at low altitudes, where higher temperatures would have been expected to promote higher aphid populations, suggests that above a certain temperature regime generalist predators have the capacity to prevent E. abietinum responding to further increases in environmental temperatures and eventually cause mean population densities to decline. Consequently, increases in the activity and abundance of natural enemies need to be considered when predicting how E. abietinum might respond to climate change.     

Pupal diapause development and termination is driven by low temperature chilling in Bactrocera minax

Bactrocera minax is a major citrus pest in China, Bhutan, and India. It is univoltine and exhibits pupal diapause during winter. To better understand pupal diapause in this pest, we investigated pupal survival and pupal developmental duration under field and laboratory conditions. Specifically, we tested if pupal chilling was required for diapause development and termination. Nearly all mature larvae collected at the end of the citrus season entered pupal diapause. For pupae exposed in the field, natural chilling for less than 3 months resulted in more than 70 % mortality. However, exposure to winter conditions for 3 months or more both decreased pupal mortality and developmental duration when pupae were returned to the laboratory and held under constant temperature (25 °C). When pupae were gathered from the field in November and exposed to different chilling regimes in the laboratory, the chilling duration (30 vs 60 days) had significantly more impact on pupal survival than the specific chilling temperature (6, 8, 10, or 12 °C constant). However, both chilling duration and chilling temperature impacted on the pupal developmental duration, with longer chilling duration and higher temperatures decreasing pupal developmental duration. In conclusion, we demonstrated that pupal diapause development and termination in B. minax is strongly influenced by chilling conditions. Increasing cold exposure led to significantly and consistently faster adult eclosion and improved synchronization of adult emergence. This knowledge will help with the laboratory rearing of B. minax, an essential step in the long-term management of this pest.     

Effects of neonicitinoid seed treatments on soybean aphid and its natural enemies

Insecticidal seed treatments are increasingly being applied to soybeans in North America, and several recent studies question what they add to current pest management. Here, we examine the effects of two neonicotinoid insecticidal seed treatments on insect populations (pest and natural enemies) in SD soybeans over 2 years. Moreover, we conducted laboratory experiments to determine the duration that seed treatments remained effective against the soybean aphid (Aphis glycines, Hemiptera: Aphididae) and how thiamethoxam affected survival of one of the aphid’s predators, Orius insidiosus (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) on soybean. Soybean aphids, thrips, and grasshopper populations were unaffected by the insecticidal seed treatments in the field. The laboratory trial revealed that all bioactivity of the seed treatments against soybean aphids was gone within 46 days after planting, prior to aphid populations damaging the crop. Bean leaf beetles, a sporadic pest in our area, were reduced by the seed treatments. But, there were no yield benefits of insecticidal seed treatments over the 2 years of the study at this location. Natural enemy communities were significantly reduced by thiamethoxam seed treatments relative to the untreated control, particularly populations of Nabis americoferus (Hemiptera: Nabidae). Chrysoperla (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) adults were reduced in the imidacloprid-treated plots. In the laboratory, rearing O. insidiosus on soybean plants treated with thiamethoxam resulted in higher mortality for both the nymphs and the adult stage. Offering the predator insect prey on the thiamethoxam-treated plants improved survival of the adult stage, but not the nymphal stage. This work confirms that insecticidal seed treatments offer little benefit to soybean producers of the Northern Great Plains and adds to the discussion by suggesting that generalist predators are adversely affected by the insecticides.     

Seasonal population dynamic and within-plant distribution of the whitefly,Aleurotuberculatus takahashi David et Subramaniam (Hom., Aleyrodidae), and its parasitoid,Eretmocerus longipes Compere (Hym., Aphelinidae) in citrus and jasmine plantations in Fuzhou region of the southeastern China

Field investigations on seasonal population dynamic and within-plant distribution of the whiteflyAleurotuberculatus takahashi David et Subramaniam (Hom., Aleyrodidae), and its parasitoid,Eretmocerus longipes Compere (Hym., Aphelinidae) in citrus and jasmine plantations were conducted at Fuzhou, Fujian, PR China in 1996. Population levels of the whitefly and its parasitoid were approximately one times higher on jasmine plantation than on citrus. The seasonal trend of the whitefly parasitization rate on citrus was similar to that on jasmine. Maximum parasitization rates on citrus and jasmine were determined on 30. Sept. valuing 17.5% and 32.0%, respectively. Later in the season this rate gradually dropped gradually down to zero level till the end of sampling period. Populations ofA. takahashi andE. longipes were differently distributed in regard to leaf age on citrus and to plant layers on jasmine.A. takahashi was most abundant on youngest citrus leaves (age class I) averaging 14.03 indiv./leaf and on leaves in the top layer of jasmine with 20.02 indiv./leaf, whileE. longipes preferred to settle on youngest citrus leaves (age class I) (3.41 indiv./leaf) and on leaves in the middle layer of jasmine (2.95 indiv./leaf). Beside the whitefly population was distributed in a contagious pattern with K>8 on mature citrus leaves (age class III), the whitefly and parasitoid populations displayed an aggregated distribution pattern with 0<K<8 on all the leaf ages of citrus and all 3 layers of jasmine. Furthermore, the distribution of the parasitoid was even more aggregated than that of the whitefly within all leaf position tested. Regression analysis was used to fit a model of the parasitism related to the indices of whitefly (K1)/parasitoid (K2) (Y=0.1770–0.0048X, r=0.7850, p<0.05), where a=0.1770 represented the average saturation parasitism byE. longipes and b=0.0048 indicated a negative relation between the parasitism and the indices of K1/K2. From the equation it was concluded that the fitness of spatial distribution pattern between the whiteflyA. takahashi and its parasitoidE. longipes was optimal with of K1/K2-indices below 5 resulting in the highest parasitism in the field.     

Weeds,aphids, and specialist parasitoids and predators benefit differently from organic and conventional cropping of winter cereals

The aphid–natural enemy interaction in winter wheat fields constitutes a complex system that has been frequently studied because of its implication for biological control. However, not all of the aphids living in cereal fields are crop pests, as there are also aphids living on weeds that may serve as alternative hosts or prey for aphid parasitoids or predators. In this context, a concomitant survey of the plant and insect communities was conducted to understand how different plant communities affect the abundance and richness of aphids and the interactions with their natural enemies. The plant community was split into functional groups (grasses, legumes and forbs), and the aphid community was divided into feeding groups according to their host preferences (specialists in grasses or forbs). The grass aphids, which dominated the total aphid catches, responded positively to grass cover, which was particularly enhanced in the conventional fields. Conversely, the forb aphids, which mainly conditioned the total species richness of the aphids, were closely correlated with the local abundance of legumes. The system of cereal aphid-parasitoids was enhanced in the conventional fields, where the abundance of grasses was higher, whereas the legumes of the organic fields indirectly played a key role in enhancing the richness of the parasitoids and the abundance of predators. Our findings indicate that a bottom-up effect exists throughout the plant community, aphids, and aphidophagous insects and that plant community characteristics should be considered to better understand cereal aphid control.     

Effect of Lecanicillium muscarium on Eretmocerus sp. nr. furuhashii (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), a parasitoid of Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

Pathogenicity of Lecanicillium muscarium, against Eretmocerus sp. nr. furuhashii (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), was investigated under laboratory conditions to determine if the fungal infection of the whitefly host can effect the survival, longevity and fecundity of female parasitoid. The results indicated that the number of parasitized larvae surviving a L. muscarium treatment after 6 days of oviposition decreased with increasing concentrations of L. muscarium and in later stages of development (12 days post oviposition) were not affected by fungal application. There were no significant differences on adult parasitoid survivorship after 7 days among all treatments. Maximum survivorship (73.33%) was observed for control and it was minimum (60%) at 1 × 10⁸ conidia/ml. L. muscarium showed a non significant effect on longevity and next offsprings of female parasitoids. The percentage emergence of parasitoids from the whitefly nymphs produced by the females emerged from treated pupae was almost similar. Maximum emergence (69.77%) was observed at 1 × 10⁶ conidia/ml and it was lowest (61.02%) at conidial concentration of 1 × 10⁸ conidia/ml. Maximum longevity of adult Eretmocerus sp. emerging from whitefly nymphs when treated after 12 days of postoviposition was observed for 1 × 10⁵ conidia/ml having a mean value of 5 days whereas the lowest longevity was 4.9 days observed at 1 × 10⁸ conidia/ml. The results mentioned above indicate that the interaction among biocontrol agents is positive to a greater extent with minimum risk hazards.     

Effect ofMelia azedarach extract on larval development and reproduction parameters ofSpodoptera littoralis (Boisd.) andAgrotis ipsilon (Hufn.) (lep. noctuidae)

Methanolic extract ofMelia azedarach fruits enriched by washing with petrolether and ethyl acetate was used for laboratory treatments of two lepidopteran pests in Egypt. The experiments were carried out with concentrations of 10, 15, 25, 50, 100 and 1000 ppm in a diet and compared with control insects. In both insects food consumption, weight gain and conversion of ingested food (ECI) in body matter decreased with increasing extract amounts. The conversion of digested food (ECD) was lowered gradually by using higher concentrations ofMelia extract. Some antifeedant activity was observed in larvae ofS. littoralis andA. ipsilon. The percentage of mortality increased with application of higher concentrations ofMelia extract in both species. Starting from 3rd larval instar the larvae of both species reduced significantly their weight until pupation in 25 ppm and higher extract concentrations, while the larval period was prolonged. The pupal weight was significantly reduced at 15, 25 and 50 ppm. At higher concentrations the larvae failed to pupate. Duration of pupal period was affected only inA. ipsilon. All reproduction parameters, as period of oviposition, fecundity, fertility and longevity of males and females were affected using emerged adults from treated larvae with concentrations of 10, 15 and 25 ppmMelia extract. InS. littoralis no adult emerged from pupae originated from larvae treated with 50 ppm and higher amounts and no larva hatched from eggs laid by adults treated with 25 ppmMelia concentration as larvae. In both species the oviposition period was shortened at 15 and 25 ppm extract, the fecundity and fertility were drastically reduced, and the longevity of males and females was reduced. Cross sections of the midgut showed that the epithelial cells are destroyed in both pests. This can be one of the reasons for the observed effects.     

Effect of egg parasitoid density on the population suppression of Sunn Pest, Eurygaster integriceps (Hemiptera: Scutelleridae), and its resulting impact on bread wheat grain quality

The impact of the density of Sunn Pest egg parasitoids, Trissolcus grandis Thomson (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae), at three levels of Sunn Pest, Eurygaster integriceps Puton (Hemiptera: Scutelleridae), infestation was assessed on bread wheat variety Cham 6 in screened cages in the field for percentage of egg parasitism and grain quality. Percent parasitism ranged from 60.1 to 83.9%. No statistically significant differences were detected at parasitoid densities of 1, 2, or 3 insects per square meter at Sunn Pest densities of 2 or 4 insects per square meter. The quality of grain collected from all Sunn Pest infested cages without egg parasitoids was unacceptable for baking purposes and was significantly lower than grain from both non-infested plots and plots where either two or three egg parasitoids were present. The abundance of egg parasitoids in Al Hassakeh province in Syria was also determined. Egg parasitism was observed 1 week after the initiation of Sunn Pest oviposition and ranged between 22 and 59% in non-insecticide treated fields, while no parasitoids were recovered from insecticide treated areas within the same region. The impact of feeding by Sunn Pest on different wheat stages indicated that only feeding prior to the spike stage does not affect the bread-making quality of the grain.     

The side-effects of pesticides onDiaeretiella rapae, a parasitoid of the turnip aphid (Lipaphis erysimi)

Diaeretiella rapae (M’Intosh.) is an endoparasite of the turnip aphid,Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.) with a wide geographical distribution. The four Pesticides Nogos 50 EC at 600 ml per acre, Dimecron 50 WSC, Monofos 40 WSC and Tamaron 600 SL at 500 ml per acre, used in practice for the control of this pest, were tested for their side-effects onD. rapae. The parasitoid was reared on pottedBrassica napus plants infested with aphid under laboratory conditions (22±2°C, 60–70% rel. hum., 16 h light and 8 h dark). In one test, adult female parasitoids were exposed to fresh pesticide residues on glass plates and in another test, the pupae within aphid mummies were directly sprayed. The results revealed that Dimecron 50 WSC, Nogos 50 EC and Monofos 40 WSC were harmful causing 100% mortalitv toD. rapae followed by Tamaron 600 SL (97% moderately harmful) after 24 hours of application, compared to no mortality in control, where only water was sprayed. Directly spraying of pupae with Dimecron 50 WSC and Nogos 50 EC reduced adult parasitoid emergence to 9 and 7%, respectively, Monofos 40 WSC and Tamaron 600 SL to 3% compared to 78% emergence for the control within one week of treatment. The results showed that none of the tested pesticides was safe toD. rapae and according to the International Organization for Biological Control (IOBC) further testing under semi-field and field conditions is recommended.     

Loss of host fidelity in highly inbred populations of the parasitoid wasp <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aphidius ervi</Emphasis> (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)

Inbreeding frequently reduces the fitness of organisms, but little is known about how this phenomenon can affect the biological control. Host fidelity provides an adaptive advantage to aphid parasitoids, allowing females to find their aphid host more quickly in heterogeneous environments. This trait is mediated by the learning of signals, mainly chemical cues emitted from the host in which parasitoids developed (natal). This article is aimed at studying whether host fidelity can be altered after many generations of inbreeding reproduction in caged laboratory populations, for which host preference and fitness parameters were measured in the parasitoid wasp Aphidius ervi. Also, the effect of the natal/non-natal hosts was studied, using parasitoids originated from the pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum) and the grain aphid (Sitobion avenae). We observed a loss of host fidelity in the studied A. ervi populations, irrespective of their natal aphid host, which contrasts with previous reports showing preference for natal hosts in outbred laboratory populations. The loss of host fidelity is discussed in terms of the origin of populations; the sex ratio was strongly biased toward males and long-time maintenance under laboratory conditions. Our results highlight the need for controlling the genetic diversity of caged parasitoids before they are released into fields, as a long period of inbreeding could negatively affect the biological control.     

Field surveys of egg mortality and indigenous egg parasitoids of the brown marmorated stink bug, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Halyomorpha halys</Emphasis>, in ornamental nurseries in the mid-Atlantic region of the USA

The brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stål), is an invasive species native to regions of China, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. In its native and introduced range, H. halys is considered a pest of tree fruits, vegetables, legumes, and ornamental trees. The highly polyphagous nature of this insect as well as its vast dispersal capabilities, require an integrated approach to management. Here we focus on the potential impact of indigenous natural enemies on H. halys in woody ornamental nurseries in Maryland, USA. We sampled naturally field laid H. halys egg masses for mortality and parasitism rates in 2012 and 2013. Overall, egg mortality averaged 54% for both years, and increased within season and between years. The largest source of mortality was from egg parasitoids with mean parasitism rates of 30.73 and 39.63% in 2012 and 2013, respectively. Mortality from predation was much lower and averaged 4.61% by chewing and 2.53% by sucking predators. We found seven species of Hymenopteran egg parasitoids attacking H. halys eggs, with Anastatus reduvii being the dominant species comprising 61.17 and 79.12% of all parasitoids in 2012 and 2013, respectively. The observed increase in parasitism over time and female biased sex ratio of parasitoids suggests that native parasitoids may be responding to the novel host, H. halys. Consequently, the use of these native eupelmid egg parasitoids in augmentative or conservation biological control may be a viable H. halys management strategy in ornamental nurseries.     

Influence of mixed biocide GCSC-BtA on the pupae and adult stages of Apanteles plutellae Kurd. (Hym., Braconidae) and its host. Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lep., Plutellidae)

This paper deals with the influence of the mixed biocide GCSC-BtA on the pupal and adult stages of Apanteles plutellae Kurd. (Hym., Braconidae) and its host, Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lep., Plutellidae). The results show that mortalities of the pupae of P. xylostella in the direct-dip bioassay were 84.67?%, that of the adults in the residue bioassay at 1.2500?mg/ml concentration of GCSC-BtA were 78.00?% which were significantly higher than the mortality values for the pupae with 54.62?% and adults with 48.13?% of A. plutellae. In contrast, cypermethrin showed extremely high toxicity to the pupae with 94.58?% and adults with 86.00?% mortality values of A. plutellae as compared to the low mortality values of 42.14?% for the pupae and 32.11?% for the adults of P. xylostella, with the same concentrations and bioassay methods. The LC₅₀ values of GCSC-BtA were 0.3402, 0.5516 and 1.2405, 1.9480?mg/ml for the pupae and adults of P. xylostella and A. plutellae, respectively, while the LC₅₀ values for cypermethrin were 1.5652, 2.3471 and 0.1096, 0.1152?mg/ml, respectively. GCSC-BtA was found more toxic to the pupae and adults of P. xylostella and safer to the pupae and adults of A. plutellae than cypermethrin. The possibilty of using GCSC-BtA against P. xylostella under partial control by A. plutellae in vegetable fields is discussed.     

Attract,reward and disrupt: responses of pests and natural enemies to combinations of habitat manipulation and semiochemicals in organic apple

The widespread use of pesticides along with the simplification of the landscape has had undesirable effects on agroecosystems, such as the loss of biodiversity and the associated ecosystem service biological control. How current production systems can be remodelled to allow for a re-establishment of biological pest control, while preserving productivity, is a major challenge. Here, we tested whether a combination of tools could augment or synergize biological control of insect pests in apple (Malus domestica), comprised of a tortricid pest complex, a geometrid pest complex and the rosy apple aphid. The tools aimed at disrupting mating behaviour of multiple pest species (multispecies mating disruption, “Disrupt”, MMD), attracting natural enemies (a blend of herbivory-induced volatiles, “Attract”, A), or providing refuge and rewards for a diverse insect community (perennial flower strip, “Reward”, R) over a 3-year period. Suction samples were consistently richer in generalist predators but not in parasitoids when multiple tools including MMD?+?A?+?R or MMD?+?A were employed. In addition, lepidopteran pest levels were significantly lower in these plots than in MMD or MMD?+?R at the end of the 3-year experiment. This was, however, not reflected in survival of artificially established aphid colonies. Our data indicates that multiple, complementary tools can greatly enhance natural enemy level, but also that long-term implementation is needed to fully realize the augmentatory or synergistic potential of complementary components and restore biological control as an ecosystem service of practical relevance.

     

Pathogenicity of three entomopathogenic fungi on pupae and adults of the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Diptera: Tephritidae)

The pathogenicity of local isolates of the entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin, Isaria fumosorosea (Wize) (formerly Paecilomyces fumosoroseus (Wise) Brown & Smith) and Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin (Ascomycota: Hypocreales) were evaluated under laboratory conditions against pupae and adults of Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae) via different routes of exposure. Average mortality of pupae after immersing them into spore suspensions was in general low and ranged from 18.7 to 23.9 % depending on fungal species and dose applied. However, adults obtained from treated pupae appeared to have higher mortality rates compared to control with all fungi and doses tested. Adults’ average mortalities ranged from 41.9 to 88.0 % after exposing them to EPF either by feeding on a mixture of conidial suspension and artificial food or by bodily contact with conidia, depending on fungal species, dose and method of exposure. The proportion of cadavers, pupae or adults, that produced visible signs of mycosis ranged from 40.4 to 73.3 % with the exception of those that were exposed to M. anisopliae. In that case, none of the insects that died after exposure to conidia of M. anisopliae developed visible mycelium on their surface. Moreover, confining treated with untreated adults indicated horizontal conidial transmission in some cases. Our results indicate that EPF might be a promising biological control agent for the Mediterranean fruit fly and could be utilised with different modes of application: soil application against pupae and cover or bait sprays against adults.     

Host acceptance behavior of the parasitoid Aphelinus mali and its aphid-host Eriosoma lanigerum on two Rosaceae plant species

The presence of a natural enemy in a habitat refuge is no guarantee of emigration by these into crop fields, when pest population outbreaks occur. Parasitoids from a refuge may not prefer foraging on the pest crop, exhibiting host fidelity, and therefore not constituting a source of natural enemies for improving biological control. An effective refuge must not only be a suitable sink for natural enemies, providing an acceptable host when these are not present in the crop, but it must also be a suitable source of parasitoids that readily accept the aphid-host on the crop. Therefore, crop-originated parasitoids would have to accept pests from the refuge as hosts to lay eggs in, and refuge-originated parasitoids would have to accept and lay eggs in pests from the crop. We here study the host fidelity of populations of Eriosoma lanigerum originating from two host plants (firethorn and apple) through reciprocal transfer experiments. Thereafter, the host fidelity of parasitoids from populations in the two host plants (firethorn and apple) was assessed. Reciprocal transfer experiments of parasitoids did not show an association between apple-originated parasitoids and their preference for any of the aphid hosts. Conversely, parasitoids from firethorn exhibited a higher number of attacks and in less time when aphids from apple were offered, suggesting a preference for apple-originated aphids. If future field work confirms these findings, firethorn could become an important management tool for enhancing biological control of woolly apple aphid in apple orchards, without being a substantial source of aphids.