South Carolina's challenge to civil rights: The case of South Carolina State College, 1945–1954

South Carolina State College was founded in 1896. As one of the Black institutions taking advantage of the Second Morrill Act of 1890, a large portion of the college's limited financial resources, its energies, and its programs were devoted to training students in agriculture, home economics, vocational trades, and in the education of teachers. These curriculums were considered appropriate for young Black men and women in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.When the civil rights movement began to challenge segregation in education in South Carolina in the late 1940s and early 1950s, the state's white leaders responded quickly and effectively by creating graduate and law programs at State College. To preserve the racial status quo and segregation in education, Governor James F. Byrnes subsequently raised funds, including one-half million dollars from the Rockefeller sponsored General Education Board, to improve long neglected facilities at State College. A sizable portion of the funds were devoted to the agricultural program.     

“Raising among themselves”: Black educational advancement and the morrill act of 1890

Debate over the curricula of Black colleges and universities dates back to before the turn of the century and involved such noted Black leaders as Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. DuBois. The 1890 Land-Grant Colleges eventually established in 17 southern and border states were created to provide institutions for the teaching of the agricultural and mechanical arts to African-Americans. However, due to their being chronically underfunded and understaffed during the early decades of their existence, they focused mainly on teacher training and to a large extent became state normal schools or teacher colleges for Blacks. I argue that the improvements in public education of southern Blacks at the primary and secondary levels during the 1920s and 1930s induced many graduates of the 1890 institutions to become teachers. At the same time the growing numbers and higher quality of these individuals lead to an increase in the returns to time spent in school and induced increasing numbers of Black parents to send their children to school. During the 1930s expenditures per pupil in Black public schools increased, as did the real wages of Black teachers, while average classroom size fell. At the same time both literacy and school attendance of southern Blacks rose. In no small part these changes were due to 1890 colleges and their students.Lee A. Craig is Assistant Professor of Economics and Business, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695. He was co-winner of the 1989 Allan Nevins Prize, presented by the Economic History Association for the best Ph.D. thesis in American Economic History. He has published articles in journals such asAgricultural History and theJournal of Economic History, and his book,To Plant or Sow One Acre More: Farm Output, Productivity, and the Fall of Rural Birth Rates in the Northern United States is forthcoming from Johns Hopkins University Press.     

Contributions of 1890 schools to rural development

This article concentrates on 1890 land-grant colleges' and universities' contributions to rural development in 16 southern and border states. The author contends that lifting rural dwellens out of ignorance and poverty has been a major objective of 1890 institutions. During the early years the 1890s sent out change-agents to encourage rural dwellers to improve their standard of living through education and self-help programs. These agents went into rural communities and taught farm families to raise better crops and livestock; improve their homes, schools, and community life; and despite inadequate funding of teaching, research, and extension at these schools, the 1890 schools made significant contributions to rural development. Moreover, the writer contends that the 1890 schools are not outmoded, but essential to rural development and to the education of American citizens during the rest of the 1990s and into the 21st century.     

A history of black farm operators in Maryland

Since the turn of the century, the number of small-scale farmers in the U.S. and farmlands they owned have declined very sharply (structural change). Although the decrease in number is generally true for both white and Black farm operators, it has been more significant for Blackfarm operators than whites. The declining trend in the number of Blackfarm operators in the country is derived from individual state experiences that resulted from a combination of various political and economic factors. Using the census of agriculture data from 1900 to 1987, this paper gives a brief historical overview of Black farm operators in Maryland. The census data for the study period shows that at their peak number in 1910, there were 6,382 Blackfarmers in the state of Maryland. However, by 1987, only 371 of that number remained, representing a loss of 94 percent since 1910. According to the 1987 census data almost all Black operated farms in Maryland were not only small-scale but also in the lower sales class, less than $20,000 a year. Their household net family income is below that of non-metropolitan median household income. This concentration of Blacks in the lower economic class of farm operators in the state, for the most part, is closely related to their resource endowments, patterns of tenure, type of farm enterprises, and government farm programs and policies. On the average, Blackfarmers in Maryland have less land, capital and management skills than their white counterparts. Government policies and programs had, and continue to have, a devastating effect on Maryland Black farmers because they were tied to productive resources rather than farm income needs. Under conditions of low income, years of neglect by federal and state programs and policies, and limited resources Blackfarmers were unable to adopt capital intensive production practices and expand their farm operations. This resulted in most of them leaving agriculture, in the past and today, at a faster rate than whites. To avert or at least lessen the unfortunate situation of Black farm operators, projections and possible solutions are offered. This includes how the 1890 Land-Grant institutions because of their tradition, expertise and experience of research, teaching and outreach can take the leadership role in shaping the future direction of these farmers and their operations.Trained in agricultural economics, Ejigou Demissie is an Associate Professor in the Department of Agriculture at the University of Maryland Eastern Shore. His teaching areas include agricultural policy, farm business management, and agricultural marketing. Research interests center on small-scale agriculture and rural development. His recent book published by Westview Press is titledSmall-Scale Agriculture in America: Race, Economics, and the Future.     

农户农业新技术采用行为影响因素实证分析

采用半结构访谈和问卷调查相结合的方法,对南宁市江南区吴圩镇农户新技术采用行为的影响因素进行调查和实证分析。结果表明,农业新技术产生的高经济效益是农户采用新技术的动力;户主的文化程度越高、家庭劳动力越多,采用农业新技术的意愿越强;户主年龄越小,越愿意采用农业新技术;政府对农民提供补贴和信贷支持,有利于农业新技术的推广;掌握新技术难度越大,农民采用意愿越小;采取技术培训和现场指导示范等有效的农业技术服务方式,有利于加快农业新技术推广的进程。     

Agricultural debt restructuring,accounting, and public policy: A study of the Farmers Home Administration

Federal credit policies toward agriculture reflect the human values of maintaining the farm production sector largely as an industry characterized by small-scale, family farms. The Farmers Home Administration has implemented various credit programs designed to carry out this policy objective. As a result of the prolonged financial crisis in the farm economy, the agricultural community is becoming more aware of the controversies surrounding the mission of FmHA and its debt restructuring program. This paper discusses the debt restructuring program administered by the Farmers Home Administration (FmHA), as authorized by the Agricultural Credit Act of 1987, and amended by the recently enacted Farm Bill of 1990. It discusses the key provisions of the Agricultural Credit Act authorizing FmHA to establish a debt restructuring and debt forgiveness program aimed at achieving the public policy objective of keeping financially stressed farmers in business, whenever possible.In the course of reviewing the restructuring program, FmHA officials and congressional committees reviewed the FmHA's mission and its program implementation. This review indicated that several unintended negative consequences resulted from several abuses stemming from inadequate administrative mechanisms and controls and conflicting legislative objectives of debt forgiveness and federal tax policy. In enacting the 1990 Farm Bill, Congress sought to reorient FmHA's mission to a temporary source of credit and to eliminate various abuses associated with the implementation of FmHA's debt restructuring program. The 1990 Farm Bill reflects an effort by Congress to address some the controversies surrounding federal credit policies toward agriculture. Although Congress placed limits on debt restructuring, the overall public policy objective of maintaining a family-farm posture in the agricultural sector continues to be an important social value.     

From negro academy to black land grant college: The Maryland experience 1886–1910

As an institution serving the youth of Maryland of the colored race, the evolution of Princess Anne Academy as a land grant school depicts the problems and successes of the early black land grant schools of the South. It responded to the prevailing economic and social forces of its time. Despite the rhetoric of the federal 1890 Land Grant Act, Princess Anne Academy, like other 1890 schools, did not enjoy the equal financial support accorded the 1862 schools. A hostile community and an indifferent legislature prevented Princess Anne Academy from actively participating in the educational life on the Eastern Shore.John R. Wennersten is Professor of History at the University of Maryland, Eastern Shore. Ruth Ellen Wennersten is a researcher and teacher whose previous work on Black education in Maryland appeared in theMaryland Historical Magazine.     

农业高职院校图书馆服务“三农＂路径研究

分析了农业高职院校图书馆服务“三农”的优势,提出了农业高职院校图书馆为“三农”服务的路径：加强农业信息资源建设;为农技人员开展信息检索和知识培训;送科技下乡;开展多层次咨询服务;做好新技术、新成果的信息推广。     

教学结合校农合作是培养人才的重要途径

农业广播电视学校是一所利用广播、电视、网络等现代传媒方式进行中等职业教育和农民终身教育的远程教育学校。20余年的教学工作,在贯彻以人为本,以农为根的办学理念和积极提升服务＂三农＂的职能,充分发挥农广校作用的实践中,倍加感到教、学结合,校农合作至关重要。它是确保学员学有所用,学有所为,学有所能的重要途径,也是农业广播电视学校兴旺、发展,具有强大生命力的根本所在。     

推进高校招生制度改革,服务和谐社会

高校招生制度改革是事关高等教育改革能否顺利推进,高等教育事业能否和谐发展,为和谐社会建设服务的重要问题之一。本文在分析我国高校招生制度现状的基础上,从高校招生计划的制定、高校招生模式的改革、学生评价体制的制定等方面提出改革意见和建议。     

中国农村气象服务的现状、需求及其发展策略

中国农业生产的丰歉很大程度上取决于天气气候条件,频发的气象灾害每年给农村社会经济的发展造成巨大的损失,严重影响了农村的可持续发展。有针对性的农业气象服务,是增强农业农村防灾减灾能力和降低农业气象灾害风险的最佳途径。为此,对国内农村对气象信息应用的现状、需求进行调查,结果表明：（1）农村用户希望能够及时获取天气预报等气象信息,希望进一步提高天气预报的准确率;（2）农村用户希望提供更加专业的针对关键农事季节和农业生产的天气信息;（3）农村用户希望有更多的手段和途径传播气象信息,解决偏远农村的气象信息传输问题,提高农村气象防灾减灾能力;（4）农村用户渴望获得农村气象科技和防灾减灾知识。笔者还提出了提高农村气象服务能力的管理机制,强化防灾减灾体系建设,建农村气象灾害防御系统工程,提升农村气象服务的技术水平,扩大农村用户群的发展策略。     

环境约束条件下农户认知与低碳生产行为研究——基于太湖流域的调查数据

基于太湖流域216位农户的微观调研数据,分析了农户认知及低碳生产行为的特点,并对影响农户低碳生产行为的因素进行计量分析.结果表明,太湖农户对农用生产资料带来的环境负面效应认知度较高,但在决策现实农业生产时,农户的实际行为却不是基于生态环境考虑,出现了农户认知与其生产行为的不一致;农户对低碳生产中的关键技术响应程度普遍不足,低碳新技术在太湖地区“最后一公里”的落地入户问题突出.实证分析结果表明,受教育年限、非农收入、加入农业合作社以及参加农业培训都对农户的低碳农业生产行为产生显著影响.     

边疆地方农业院校科技人员服务“三农”的实践与对策

农业科技进步是解决"三农"问题的关键,而地方农业院校是边疆民族地区现代农业技术产生的重要源泉与发展的不竭动力。文章归纳总结了以云南农业大学为代表的科技人员服务"三农"的途径与模式,深入分析了边疆地方农业院校科技人员服务"三农"存在的主要问题,并结合边疆地方农业院校的地方性特点,提出了不断完善科技人员服务"三农"的对策与措施,以期切实提高工作的实效性。     

Black land grant institutions and the title XII program: Is there room to maneuver?

In theory Black land grant (BLG) institutions offer a distinctive approach to agricultural assistance. An approach that is potentially sensitive to the smallholder environmental management and limited resource concerns faced by many Third World farmers attempting to meet food security and nutritional needs. Moreover, BLG approaches to agricultural assistance are characterized by sensitivities to the social, political, and cultural contexts in which food production and distribution take place. Yet these remain subjugated approaches within a foreign policy milieu that continues to privilege the more scientistic, technical, and managerial approaches to agricultural assistance historically taken by white land grant (WLG) institutions. This paper uses information gathered from informants in the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID), BLG, and WLG institutions, as well as policy and program documents from these institutions to examine how the organization of BLG institutions within AID's Title XII program has affected their potential role in agricultural assistance in the Third World.Rosalind P. Harris is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Sociology at the University of Kentucky. She is currently conducting research, sponsored by the Ford Foundation and the Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies on research and extension programs at historically Black land grant institutions.     

我国农业高校外国留学生教育发展现状、问题与对策

通过对我国农业高校外国留学生发展现状、存在问题进行分析，提出我国农业高校应制定适合外国留学的培养方案、采取灵活多样的培养模式、加快英语授课课程建设步伐，以吸引更多、更优的留学生来华学习，加快我国农业高校的国际化进程。     

浅析农民专业合作社

农民专业合作社是以服务农民为主要目标．为参与到农民专业合作社当中的农民提供生产资料的购买渠道,为这些社员提供较好的农产品培育方式方法,为他们生产出的农产品的销售、加工、运输等提供有用信息的组织;是一个在农村家庭承包经营的基础上,同类农产品或同类农业生产经营的生产者以及负责人．在自愿、自制的基础上联合起来的一种经济合作组织。农民专业合作社对农业经济的推动与发展都起到了重要的作用。     

Assessing the impact of the green revolution, 1960 to 2000

We summarize the findings of a recently completed study of the productivity impacts of international crop genetic improvement research in developing countries. Over the period 1960 to 2000, international agricultural research centers, in collaboration with national research programs, contributed to the development of "modern varieties" for many crops. These varieties have contributed to large increases in crop production. Productivity gains, however, have been uneven across crops and regions. Consumers generally benefited from declines in food prices. Farmers benefited only where cost reductions exceeded price reductions.     

Cultivating cacao Implications of sun-grown cacao on local food security and environmental sustainability

The reasons why upland farmerson the Indonesian island of Sulawesi areengaged in a cacao boom and its long termimplications are addressed in the context ofprotected area management regulations, andpolitical and economic conditions inPost-Suharto, Indonesia. In the remote casestudy village of Moa in Central Sulawesi, wefound that while few households cultivatedcacao in the early 1990s, all had planted cacaoby 2000. Furthermore, the vast majoritycultivate cacao in former food-crop focusedswidden fields under full-sun conditions.Farmers cultivate cacao to establish propertyrights in light of a land shortage driven inpart by the prohibition of farming and forestproduct collecting in a nearby national park,and to secure a future source of income, aconcern that has been exacerbated byIndonesia's economic crisis. However,conversion of swidden fields to sun-grown cacaoconstrains future food productionopportunities, increases susceptibility todrought stress and potential soil nutrient andorganic matter losses, and increases householddependence on a commodity that is subject toextreme price volatility. These factors raisesignificant concerns for local food securityand agricultural sustainability.     

高等农业院校校企合作教育的内涵新解及模式创新

基于国外高校校企合作教育的实践与研究,指出高等农业院校校企合作教育是一种建立在现有的本科教育基础上,通过与涉农企业的合作,提供学生相应实践机会,加强学生职业环境适应能力培养,最终达到学生、高校、企业三赢的新型教育模式。在校企合作教育过程中,应将企业需求引入学生科研训练,构建以企业高管为主体的兼职班主任制度,设立创业基金以推动学生自主创业。     

气候变化感知对农户生计策略的影响——基于云南省农村居民调查数据

为理清气候变化感知影响农户生计的基本路径和内在逻辑,本研究基于云南省昭通市大山包镇农户调查数据,应用偏最小二乘结构方程模型分析气候变化感知对其生计策略的影响。结果表明：1)气候变化感知对农业生计策略具有显著负面影响,但对非农业策略呈现显著正向影响;2)气候变化感知同时通过适应性行为这一中介变量间接影响生计策略,进一步推动农业生计策略向非农化方向发展;3)气候变化感知对生计策略的影响路径表现出明显的农户个人因素差异和农业生产环境差异,风险喜好型和信息获取能力较强的农户群体更倾向于调整和转变生计策略,存在农业补贴和农业基础设施较完备时农户倾向于坚持农业生计策略。本研究能够为政府制定针对性更强的气候变化政策、提升农户可持续生计能力提供一定参考。