Characterization of Soil Phosphorus in Differently Managed Clay Soil by Chemical Extraction Methods and 31P NMR Spectroscopy

Changes in land use alter the natural cycling of phosphorus (P) in soil. Understanding the chemical nature of these changes is important when developing sustainable management practices for cultivated soils. In this study, we evaluated the ability of commonly used laboratory methods to characterize land use–induced changes in various P pools. Also, the characteristics of soil P revealed by different methods are discussed. Soil samples were taken from three differently managed field plots of the same clay soil: uncultivated grassland and organic and conventional crop rotations. Soil P reserves were characterized using Chang and Jackson and Hedley sequential fractionation procedures and by sodium hydroxide (NaOH)–ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) extraction followed by ³¹P NMR spectroscopy. Both of the tested fractionation methods identified differences in the P pools and provided evidence regarding land use–induced changes. However, the ³¹P NMR analysis suggests that the quality of organic P in this soil was not affected by the change in land use.     

Soil organic phosphorus in tropical forests: an assessment of the NaOH–EDTA extraction procedure for quantitative analysis by solution 31P NMR spectroscopy

The extraction of soil organic phosphorus by the NaOH–EDTA procedure was assessed in detail for a tropical forest soil (clay‐loam, pH 4.3, total carbon 2.7%). Optimum conditions for the quantification of soil organic phosphorus and characterization of its composition by solution ³¹P NMR spectroscopy were extraction in a solution containing 0.25 m NaOH and 50 mm Na₂EDTA in a 1:20 solid to solution ratio for 4 hours at ambient laboratory temperature. Replicate analyses yielded a coefficient of variation of 3% for organic phosphorus as a proportion of the spectral area. There was no significant difference in total phosphorus extraction from fresh and air‐dried soil, although slightly more organic phosphorus and less paramagnetic ions were extracted from dried soil. The procedure was not improved by changing the concentration of NaOH or EDTA, extraction time, or solid to solution ratio. Pre‐extraction with HCl or Na₂EDTA did not increase subsequent organic phosphorus extraction in NaOH–EDTA or improve spectral resolution in solution ³¹P NMR spectroscopy. Post‐extraction treatment with Chelex resin did not improve spectral resolution, but removed small concentrations of phosphorus from the extracts. Increasing the pH of NaOH–EDTA extracts (up to 1.0 m NaOH) increased the concentration of phosphate monoesters, but decreased DNA to an undetectable level, indicating its hydrolysis in strong alkali. The standardized NaOH–EDTA extraction procedure is therefore recommended for the analysis of organic phosphorus in tropical forest soils.     

Characterization of Phosphorus in Sewage Sludge from Different Sources by 31Phosphorus Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

To investigate the distribution and dynamics of phosphorus (P) in soils for environmental protection and agronomical usage, ³¹P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (³¹P NMR) was used to characterize the contents and chemical properties of P in sewage sludge from 13 wastewater treatment plants in Shanghai. The samples were extracted with 0.25 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) / 0.05 M sodium ethylenediamietetraacetic acid (Na₂EDTA) in ratio of 1:20 (w/v). Total P recovery in the extract ranged from 91 to 116% when compared to traditional chemical methods. The dominant forms of P in all samples were inorganic orthophosphates and orthophosphates monoesters. Orthophosphate diesters and pyrophosphates were present in only two and four samples, respectively. This study provides detailed information on the distribution, contents, and chemical properties of P in sewage sludge that may be of value in the utilization of sewage sludge for agronomic purposes.     

The phosphorus composition of contrasting soils in pastoral,native and forest management in Otago,New Zealand: Sequential extraction and 31P NMR

The distribution and form of P in soil is central to the sustainability of agricultural practice. This study used sequential fractionation and ³¹P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (³¹P NMR) of NaOH–EDTA extracts to examine the influence of pastoral, native (undisturbed) and forest land use on soil P forms in 5 contrasting soils ranging from a Regosol to a Rendzina in Otago, New Zealand. Climatic factors likely to influence soil P distribution were negated by careful site selection. Together with a decrease in soil organic C (31%), total P decreased in forested soils (mean=674 mg kg⁻¹) compared to native soils (mean=784 mg kg⁻¹). In contrast, the ratio of inorganic to organic P increased (10%) probably due to mineralization of organic P in forest soils, while for pasture soils, accumulation of P in inorganic forms due to P inputs via fertilisers and animal dung was to blame. Investigation of the organic P forms in NaOH–EDTA extracts of each land use by ³¹P NMR indicated that diesters were greatest in the native soil (4–12% of total P in spectra), and declined as a proportion of total P in pasture soils and more so in forest soils. This was reflected in a decline of the diester to monoester ratio. However, the ratio was generally greater in forest than pasture soils and attributed to the labile nature of diesters, mineralization of monoesters in forest soils, and an increase in monoesters in pasture soils from inositol phosphates in plant debris. This effect was pronounced in the Regosol due to sandy texture and the preferential accumulation of plant debris in coarse particle size fractions. Due to the depletion of soil P reserves, forest soils in the area should be followed by pasture and well managed fertiliser additions before replanting.     

Quantification and bioavailability of scyllo-inositol hexakisphosphate in pasture soils

The recent identification of scyllo-inositol hexakisphosphate in alkaline soil extracts by solution ³¹P NMR spectroscopy allowed us to investigate this compound in soils by re-analyzing spectra from two previously published studies. Concentrations of scyllo-inositol hexakisphosphate in 29 temperate pasture soils from England and Wales ranged between 11 and 130 mg P kg⁻¹ soil and accounted for between 4 and 15% of the soil organic phosphorus. The ratio of scyllo-inositol hexakisphosphate to myo-inositol hexakisphosphate ranged between 0.29 and 0.79. In a 10 month pot experiment with six grassland soils from New Zealand, growth of pine seedlings (Pinus radiata D. Don) decreased scyllo-inositol hexakisphosphate concentrations by between 10 and 46%. Growth of ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) decreased scyllo-inositol hexakisphosphate in three low-nutrient soils by 5-21%, but increased it in three other soils by 11-16%. We conclude that scyllo-inositol hexakisphosphate is an important component of soil organic phosphorus with potential ecological significance.     

Influence of conifers on the forms of phosphorus in selected New Zealand grassland soils

We examined the effects of conifers on the forms of P in low-fertility tussock grassland soils using ³¹P nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and soil P fractionation. Results from field and glasshouse experiments clearly demonstrated that conifers enhanced the mineralization of labile (and to a lesser extent more resistant) forms of soil organic P which, in turn, increased amounts of labile inorganic P in the soil. These findings have important implications for P availability and long-term sustainable management of grassland soils in New Zealand.     

Effects of deforestation on phosphorus pools in mountain soils of the Alay Range, Khyrgyzia

 The amount, quality and turnover of soil P is heavily influenced by changes in soil management. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of deforestation and pasture establishment on the concentrations, forms and turnover rate of soil P in mountain soils of the Alay Range, Khyrgyzia. A sequential extraction was applied to distinguish soil P pools. We used particle-size fractionation to follow the dynamics of different P pools in soils under forest and pasture and ³¹P-NMR spectroscopy to investigate the structure of alkali-soluble P forms. In the A horizons of the forest soils, total soil P concentration was 1093 mg kg^–1, organic P (P_o) representing 46% of the total P. Deforestation followed by pasture establishment not only increased significantly (P<0.01) the total P concentration (1560 mg kg^–1) but also the contribution of P_o to total P was increased by 17%. Pasture soils had significantly higher P pools than forest soils except highly labile inorganic P (P_i NaHCO₃) and primary P_i (P_i HCl_dil). Both in forest and pasture soils stable P increased with decreasing particle size (coarse sand 50%, clay 80% of total P) and primary P decreased with decreasing particle size. Phosphate monoesters and diesters represented 80% of P identified by ³¹P NMR. Low monoester to diester ratios in the alkali extracts of forest and pasture soils indicate low microbial activity. This is consistent with high C/P_o ratios and high stable P_o concentrations in the fine earth of forest and pasture. Received: 10 March 1999     

Evaluation of the factors affecting direct polarization solid state 31P-NMR spectroscopy of bulk soils

³¹P‐NMR spectroscopy on bulk soils is a powerful tool for the identification of the different phosphorus forms in soils and for the evaluation of the dynamics of soil P. Up to now the majority of the papers dealt with liquid state ³¹P‐NMR spectroscopy on soluble soil organic substances. Only few papers were addressed to the study of the different phosphorus forms directly in bulk soils. In the present paper, some organic and inorganic phosphates of known structures, which are likely to be present in soil systems, were studied by direct polarization (DP) magic angle spinning (MAS) ³¹P‐NMR spectroscopy in order to understand the electronic factors responsible for chemical shifts of the phosphorus (P) nucleus and to serve as guidelines to assign P resonances in soil spectra. Number of hydrating water molecules, type of counter‐cation, degree of covalence, and spatial conformation of P in phosphate structures were found to affect signal positions in ³¹P‐NMR spectra. Both hydrating water and increase in degree of covalence of the X‐O‐P bonds (X=H, Na) enhanced the electronic density (E_D) around P, thereby producing up‐field shifts in ³¹P‐NMR spectra. The exchange of the Na⁺ counter‐cation with NH₄⁺ resulted in an increase of the cation potential (P_C) that is a measure of the cation polarizing power, and induced a down‐field shift of P signals, due to a corresponding reduction in E_D around the P nucleus. Both NMR down‐ and up‐field shifts were observed in organic phosphates, and were dependent on the spatial orientation of the phosphate groups that may have been fixed anisotropically in the solid state. Based on the factors that influence P chemical shifts for standard phosphates, attempts to assign ³¹P‐NMR signals in the spectra of five different unperturbed bulk soils were made.     

Assessing the organic phosphorus status of an Oxisol under tropical pastures following native savanna using 31P NMR spectroscopy

³¹P nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, P fractionation, and a P sorption experiment were used to follow the changes in P in the A horizons (0–10 cm) of acid savanna soils, Colombia, after little P fertilization and 15 years' continuous growth of a grass (Brachiaria decumbens) and a grass/legume (B. decumbens+Pueraria phaseoloides) pasture. Ready P supply as analyzed by Bray P was low under native savanna (1.3 mg kg^-1 soil) and responded moderately on pasture establishment. Concurrently, the affinity of the soil for inorganic P declined slightly after pasture establishment. ³¹P NMR spectroscopy revealed that P associated with humic acids was dominated by monoester P followed by diester P. Smaller proportions were observed for phosphonates, teichoic acid P, orthophosphate, and pyrophosphate. P associated with fulvic acids had lower proportions of diester P and higher contents of orthophosphate. Under native savanna the reserves of labile organic P species (phosphonates and diester P including teichoic acid P) associated with humic and fulvic acids were 12.4 and 1.1 kg ha^-1, respectively, and increased to 18.1 and 1.8 kg ha^-1 under grass pasture, and to 19.5 and 2.3 kg ha^-1 under grass/legume pasture. These data emphasize the importance of labile organic P species in the P supply for plants in improved tropical pastures, and further indicate that humic acid P in particular responds to land-use changes within a relatively short time-scale. Earthworm casts were highly abundant in the B. decumbens+P. phaseoloides plot and were enriched in labile organic P species. We conclude that earthworm activity improves the P supply in soil under tropical pastures by creating an easily available organic P pool.Dedicated to Professor J.C.G. Ottow on the occasion of his 60th birthday     

Solution 31Phosphorus Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Analysis of Acid-Extractable Phosphates in Animal Feces

Characterizing phosphates in animal fecal and manure samples is of interest to environmental-monitoring research efforts. Acid extraction removes relatively mobile phosphates from samples, offering a better indicator of the mobility of phosphates in environment, but acidic extracts impose challenges to the solution phosphorus-31 nuclear magnetic resonance (³¹P NMR) spectroscopy, which is commonly used for analyzing phosphates in environmental samples. Acid-extractable metals precipitate phosphates in the alkaline condition under which solution ³¹P NMR experiment runs, blurring the spectrum for adequate analysis. We found that neutralizing acid extracts with 0.5 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) plus 50 mM ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) before freeze drying eliminated the chemical interferences otherwise observed. The resulting ³¹P NMR spectra can be used to quantify acid-soluble phytate and other phosphates in animal fecal and manure samples. The improvement in detection will support efforts to investigate the mobility of phosphates in feces and manures used as land amendments.     

Phosphorus‐31–nuclear magnetic–resonance spectroscopy to trace organic dung phosphorus in a temperate grassland soil

Cattle dung contributes to hot‐spot inputs of nutrients to grassland systems, but not much is known about its organic P (P_o) composition and fate in the grassland soils. We used ³¹Phosphorus (P)–Nuclear Magnetic–Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy of alkaline soil extracts to examine potentials for tracing of different functional P_o forms into a temperate grassland soil amended with dung. The proportion of monoester, DNA‐diester, and phospholipid+teichoic acid P were comparable in dung extracts, but the soil was dominated by monoester P. The temporal trends in the DNA‐diester P–to–monoester P (D_DNAM) and diester P–to–monoester P (DM) ratio of dung, native soil, and soil amended with dung were monitored in the 70 d field experiment. The D_DNAM and DM ratio in the dung‐amended soil (0–1 and 1–5 cm depth) were always intermediate between the dung and (unamended) control soil. Clearly, extracted soil P was a mixture of incorporated dung‐derived P and native soil P. The dung‐P contribution in the 0–1 cm samples peaked at 47% of the total extracted P at day 70 and at 15% after 42 d in the 1–5 cm soil depth (based on the DM ratio). The proportions of dung‐derived P and C in the soil were positively correlated with: 1) topsoil, using the D_DNAM ratio (r² = 0.975), and 2) top‐ and subsoil, using the DM ratio (r² = 0.656). We concluded that our D_DNAM and DM‐P ratios approach (obtained from solution‐³¹P NMR) did trace successfully the short‐term dynamics and fate of dung P_o in soil. It indicated that dung‐derived P_o varied as rapidly in soil as the dung‐derived C.     

Cultivation-Induced Effects on the Organic Matter in Degraded Southern African Soils

We studied quantitative and qualitative changes in soil organic matter (SOM) due to different land uses (reference woodland versus cultivated) on six soils from Tanzania (Mkindo and Mafiga), Zimbabwe (Domboshawa and Chickwaka), and South Africa (Hertzog and Guquka). Structural characteristics of the humic acids (HAs) were measured by Curie-point pyrolysis–gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (P_y–GC/MS) and solid-state ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance (CPMAS ¹³C NMR) spectroscopy. Significant changes in concentration and composition of SOM were observed between land uses. Losses of organic carbon after cultivation ranged from 35% to 50%. Virgin soils showed large proportions of colloidal humus fractions: humic acids (HAs) and fulvic acids (FAs) but negligible amounts of not-yet decomposed organic residues. The change in land use produced a contrasting effect on the composition of the HAs: a noteworthy “alkyl enhancement” in Mkindo soil and “alkyl depletion” in Chikwaka and to a lesser extent in Domwoshawa. The remaining soils displayed only minor alterations.     

Chemical characteristics of glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP) extracted from soils of varying organic matter content

Glomalin is described in the literature as a N-linked glycoprotein and the putative gene product of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). Since the link between glomalin and various protein fractions in soil is not yet clearly defined, glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP) more appropriately describes glomalin's existence in natural organic matter (NOM). The objective of this study was to examine the chemical characteristics of GRSP present in several mineral and organic soils of varying organic carbon content. GRSP was isolated using high temperature sodium citrate extraction followed by either trichloroacetic acid (TCA) or hydrochloric acid (HCl) precipitation. GRSP was characterized by quantitative solid-state ¹³C DPMAS NMR, infrared (IR) spectroscopy, elemental analysis, and the Bradford assay for protein content. GRSP accounted for 25% and 52% of total C in the mineral soils and organic soil, respectively. Molar C/N and H/C ratios reveal that GRSP has less nitrogen than bovine serum albumin (BSA), and that GRSP extracted from the Pahokee peat soil possessed a more unsaturated, and thus aromatic character relative to the mineral soil GRSP, respectively. GRSP's high aromatic (42-49%) and carboxyl (24-30%) carbon contents and low aliphatic (4-11%) and carbohydrate-type carbon contents (4-16%) suggests that GRSP does not resemble a typical glycoprotein. In fact, the NMR spectra of GRSP closely resemble that of humic acid. GRSP extracted from mineral and organic soils possessed the same NMR fingerprint regardless of the precipitation method used (i.e., either TCA or HCl). It is likely that the current GRSP extraction methods, because of their similarity to the method used to extract humic acid, are coextracting both materials.     

土壤腐殖质氮结构的X-光电能谱研究

X－ray photoelectron spectroscopy(XPS) was applied to examine the N structures of soil humic substances and some of their analogues.It was found that for soil humic substances XPS method gave similar results as those obtained by ^15N CPMAS NMR (cross-polarization magic-angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance) method.70%-86% of total N in soil humic substances was in the form of amide,and 6%-13% was presented as ammes,with the remaining part as heterocyclic N.There was no difference in the distribution of the forms of N between the humic substances from soils formed over hundreds or thousands of years and the newly formed ones.For fulvic acid from weathered coal and benzoquinone-(NH4)2SO4 polymer the XPS results deviated significantly from the ^15N CPMAS NMR data.     

Phosphorus compounds in subarctic Fennoscandian soils at the mountain birch (Betula pubescens)—tundra ecotone

Nutrient availability will partly regulate the response of high latitude ecosystems to climate warming, but phosphorus biogeochemistry is poorly understood in Arctic soils. We used NaOH-EDTA extraction and solution ³¹P nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to determine phosphorus compounds in subarctic soils from three locations in the Fennoscandian mountains contrasting in latitude and continentality. Soils were taken from open tundra and mountain birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) forest at each location. Between 87 and 95% of the total phosphorus was extracted from the surface 2 cm of the organic soil horizons. Most of the extracted phosphorus was orthophosphate monoesters (44-55%), with smaller concentrations of inorganic orthophosphate (15-24%), orthophosphate diesters (12-16%), pyrophosphate (3-18%), inorganic polyphosphate (0-15%) and phosphonates (0-4%). The orthophosphate diesters were further subclassified into DNA (9-13% extracted phosphorus) and phospholipids (1-6% extracted phosphorus), although strong signals in the orthophosphate monoester region of the spectra, consistent with the degradation of phosphatidyl choline in alkaline solution, suggested that phospholipid concentrations were substantially underestimated. The phosphorus composition was broadly similar among soils from the three locations, although no phosphonates were detected in tundra soils from the most southerly site. Deeper organic horizons tended to contain a greater proportion of orthophosphate monoesters than at the surface. The abundance of phosphorus compounds that would be considered readily degradable in temperate environments probably reflects the slow organic matter decomposition in these cold, acidic soils, and suggests that phosphorus availability is unlikely to limit ecosystem productivity on mesic soils at the birch-tundra ecotone during changes induced by climate warming.     

Effects of floating Azolla on phosphorus fluxes and recovery from former agricultural lands in wetland microcosms

The long-term fertilization results in accumulation of phosphorus especially in the top layer of the soils. Inundation of agricultural lands leads to a switch to anaerobic soil condition, causing reduction of iron and leaching of phosphate simultaneously. From the ecological and environmental perspective, high nutrients flux especially phosphorus will increase the possibility of eutrophication in aquatic system. The fern Azolla had a good potential to adsorb phosphorus, it also has distinctive nitrogen-fixing capacity. We conducted a 10-week aquarium experiment to investigate the phosphorus release capacity from two agricultural soils in the Netherlands with different Fe and P concentrations but comparable Fe/P ratios. Besides, the research questions rose to whether Azolla could use the mobilized phosphate released from the soils for growth. We also tried to find an effective indicator to estimate the actually phosphate mobilization from sediment to water layer. Results showed that the soils with high Fe and P concentrations had higher phosphate release rate compared with the soil with low Fe and P concentrations. Pore water Fe: PO₄^3? ratios were valid to identify P release to surface water, when the Fe: PO₄^3? ratios less than 8 mol mol^?1 substantial phosphorus mobilization occurred. The conclusions showed that the actual mobilization of phosphate is more important than the phosphorus retained in the sediments for the internal PO₄^3? fluxes. From 10-week experimental results, we found that Azolla can reuse the phosphate retained in soils thus removed the mobilized phosphate in a moderately low surface water nutrient loading.     

Can Near or Mid‐Infrared Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy Be Used to Determine Soil Carbon Pools?

Abstract

The objective of this study was to compare mid‐infrared (MIR) an near‐infrared (NIR) spectroscopy (MIRS and NIRS, respectively) not only to measure soil carbon content, but also to measure key soil organic C (SOC) fractions and the δ¹³C in a highly diverse set of soils while also assessing the feasibility of establishing regional diffuse reflectance calibrations for these fractions. Two hundred and thirty‐seven soil samples were collected from 14 sites in 10 western states (CO, IA, MN, MO, MT, ND, NE, NM, OK, TX). Two subsets of these were examined for a variety of C measures by conventional assays and NIRS and MIRS. Biomass C and N, soil inorganic C (SIC), SOC, total C, identifiable plant material (IPM) (20× magnifying glass), the ratio of SOC to the silt+clay content, and total N were available for 185 samples. Mineral‐associated C fraction, δ¹³C of the mineral associated C, δ¹³C of SOC, percentage C in the mineral‐associated C fraction, particulate organic matter, and percentage C in the particulate organic matter were available for 114 samples. NIR spectra (64 co‐added scans) from 400 to 2498 nm (10‐nm resolution with data collected every 2 nm) were obtained using a rotating sample cup and an NIRSystems model 6500 scanning monochromator. MIR diffuse reflectance spectra from 4000 to 400 cm^?1 (2500 to 25,000 nm) were obtained on non‐KBr diluted samples using a custom‐made sample transport and a Digilab FTS‐60 Fourier transform spectrometer (4‐cm^?1 resolution with 64 co‐added scans). Partial least squares regression was used with a one‐out cross validation to develop calibrations for the various analytes using NIR and MIR spectra. Results demonstrated that accurate calibrations for a wide variety of soil C measures, including measures of δ¹³C, are feasible using MIR spectra. Similar efforts using NIR spectra indicated that although NIR spectrometers may be capable of scanning larger amounts of samples, the results are generally not as good as achieved using MIR spectra.     

Identification of soil organic phosphorus by 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Abstract

Soil samples from different land use systems were collected before cropping (in spring) and after harvest (in fall) for organic phosphorus (P) extractions by 0.4M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and characterization by ³¹P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. To prevent hydrolysis of organic P compounds prior to sample concentration, NaOH was removed from the NaOH soil extracts using a G‐25 Sephadex column. The ³¹P NMR spectra in the NaOH soil extracts showed the presence of glucose‐6 phosphate (up to 64%), glycerophosphate (up to 45%), nucleoside monophosphates (up to 91%), and polynucleotides (up to 58%) as the major forms of organic P in soils. The relative concentration of nucleoside monophosphates and polynucleotides decreased in some of the soils after harvest. The ³¹P NMR spectra of the extracts also revealed the presence of phosphoenolpyruvates, a previously unreported form of soil organic P.     

磷处理土壤中磷的释放动力学研究

Phosphate release from three selected soils after treatments of 1.6 and 2.4 mmol L^-1 P was investigated using sequential extractions and fitted using six kinetic models, including zero order （Z）, first order （F）, second order （S）,parabolic diffusion （PD）, two constant rate （TC）, and Elovich type （ET） equations. The results showed that the rate of P release was initially rapid and then gradually declined with time. Also, P release increased with added P. Total P release followed the order： paddy soil with 2.4 mmol L^-1 P 〉 red soil with 2.4 mmol L^-1 P 〉 paddy soil with 1.6 mmol L^-1 P〉 fluvo-aquic soil with 2.4 mmol L^-1 P 〉 fluvo-aquic with 1.6 mmol L^-1 P 〉 red soil with 1.6 mmol L^-1 P. For the two P treatments P release from the paddy soils in the first extraction was 44.3% and 45.6% of total released P, respectively,which were higher than those from red and fluvo-aquic soils. The ratio of P release at the end of release time was 14.0%and 13.1% in the paddy soil treated with 1.6 and 2.4 mmol L^-1 P, respectively, but only 5.1% and 9.2% in the red soil and 7.0% and 5.2% in the fluvo-aquic soil, respectively. Comparison of the coefficients of determination （R^2） indicated that ET, TC, and PD equations could describe the P release data better than Z, F, and S equations.