Life cycle inventory-based analysis of greenhouse gas emissions from arable land farming systems in Hokkaido,northern Japan

Abstract

To assess their impacts on net global warming, total greenhouse gas emissions (mainly CO₂, N₂O and CH₄) from agricultural production in arable land cropping systems in the Tokachi region of Hokkaido, Japan, were estimated using life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis. The LCI data included CO₂ emissions from on-farm and off-farm fossil fuel consumption, soil CO₂ emissions induced by the decomposition of soil organic matter, direct and indirect N₂O emissions from arable lands and CH₄ uptake by soils, which were then aggregated in CO₂-equivalents. Under plow-based conventional tillage (CT) cropping systems for winter wheat, sugar beet, adzuki bean, potato and cabbage, on-farm CO₂ emissions from fuel-consuming operations such as tractor-based field operations, truck transportation and mechanical grain drying ranged from 0.424 Mg CO₂ ha^?1 year^?1 for adzuki bean to 0.826 Mg CO₂ ha^?1 year^?1 for winter wheat. Off-farm CO₂ emissions resulting from the use of agricultural materials such as chemical fertilizers, biocides (pesticides and herbicides) and agricultural machines were estimated by input–output tables to range from 0.800 Mg CO₂ ha^?1 year^?1 for winter wheat to 1.724 Mg CO₂ ha^?1 year^?1 for sugar beet. Direct N₂O emissions previously measured in an Andosol field of this region showed a positive correlation with N fertilizer application rates. These emissions, expressed in CO₂-equivalents, ranged from 0.041 Mg CO₂ ha^?1 year^?1 for potato to 0.382 Mg CO₂ ha^?1 year^?1 for cabbage. Indirect N₂O emissions resulting from N leaching and surface runoff were estimated to range from 0.069 Mg CO₂ ha^?1 year^?1 for adzuki bean to 0.381 Mg CO₂ ha^?1 year^?1 for cabbage. The rates of CH₄ removal from the atmosphere by soil uptake were equivalent to only 0.020–0.042 Mg CO₂ ha^?1 year^?1. From the difference in the total soil C pools (0–20 cm depth) between 1981 and 2001, annual CO₂ emissions from the CT and reduced tillage (RT) soils were estimated to be 4.91 and 3.81 Mg CO₂ ha^?1 year^?1, respectively. In total, CO₂-equivalent greenhouse gas emissions under CT cropping systems in the Tokachi region of Hokkaido amounted to 6.97, 7.62, 6.44, 6.64 and 7.49 Mg CO₂ ha^?1 year^?1 for winter wheat, sugar beet, adzuki bean, potato and cabbage production, respectively. Overall, soil-derived CO₂ emissions accounted for a large proportion (64–76%) of the total greenhouse gas emissions. This illustrates that soil management practices that enhance C sequestration in soil may be an effective means to mitigate large greenhouse gas emissions from arable land cropping systems such as those in the Tokachi region of northern Japan. Under RT cropping systems, plowing after harvesting was omitted, and total greenhouse gas emissions from winter wheat, sugar beet and adzuki bean could be reduced by 18%, 4% and 18%, respectively, mainly as a result of a lower soil organic matter decomposition rate in the RT soil and a saving on the fuels used for plowing.     

Evaluation of greenhouse gas emissions in a Miscanthus sinensis Andersson-dominated semi-natural grassland in Kumamoto,Japan

Increasing greenhouse gas emissions from anthropogenic activities continue to be a mounting problem worldwide. In the semi-natural Miscanthus sinensis Andersson; grasslands of Aso, Kumamoto, Japan, which have been managed for thousands of years, we measured soil methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions before and after annual controlled burns. We estimated annual soil carbon (C) accumulation, and CH₄ and N₂O emissions induced by biomass burning in 2009 and 2010, to determine the impacts of this ecosystem and its management on global warming. Environmental factors affecting soil CH₄ and N₂O fluxes were unknown, with no effect of annual burning observed on short-term soil CH₄ and N₂O emissions. However, deposition of charcoal during burning may have enhanced CH₄ oxidation and N₂O consumption at the study site, given that emissions (CH₄: ?4.33 kg C ha^?1 yr^?1, N₂O: 0.17 kg N ha^?1 yr^?1) were relatively lower than those measured in other land-use types. Despite significant emission of CH₄ and N₂O during yearly burning events in early spring, the M. sinensis semi-natural grassland had a large annual soil C accumulation, which resulted in a global warming potential of ?4.86 Mg CO₂eq ha^?1 yr^?1. Consequently, our results indicate that long-term maintenance of semi-natural M. sinensis grasslands by annual burning can contribute to the mitigation of global warming.     

Quantifying greenhouse gas emissions from soils: Scientific basis and modeling approach

Abstract

Global climate change is one of the most important issues of contemporary environmental safety. A scientific consensus is forming that the emissions of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane, from anthropogenic activities may play a key role in elevating the global temperatures. Quantifying soil greenhouse gas emissions is an essential task for understanding the atmospheric impacts of anthropogenic activities in terrestrial ecosystems. In most soils, production or consumption of the three major greenhouse gases is regulated by interactions among soil redox potential, carbon source and electron acceptors. Two classical formulas, the Nernst equation and the Michaelis–Menten equation, describe the microorganism-mediated redox reactions from aspects of thermodynamics and reaction kinetics, respectively. The two equations are functions of a series of environmental factors (e.g. temperature, moisture, pH, Eh) that are regulated by a few ecological drivers, such as climate, soil properties, vegetation and anthropogenic activity. Given the complexity of greenhouse gas production in soils, process-based models are required to interpret, integrate and predict the intricate relationships among the gas emissions, the environmental factors and the ecological drivers. This paper reviews the scientific basis underlying the modeling of greenhouse gas emissions from terrestrial soils. A case study is reported to demonstrate how a biogeochemical model can be used to predict the impacts of alternative management practices on greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies.     

北方日光温室长季节番茄茎节生长模拟模型

以番茄器官生长发育的生理生态过程为基础,建立了北方日光温室长季节番茄茎节生长模拟模型,它是建立番茄叶片和果实生长模拟模型的基础。供试番茄品种为“卡鲁索”和“卡特琳娜”。确定了模型中的参数如节点最大出现速率等,并对模型进行了验证试验。结果表明：番茄茎节数模拟值与实测值的变化趋势一致,平均相对误差为0.7%～9%。用散点图法验证模拟值与实测值的相关系数达0.9964,截距为-8.8,每平方米模拟值比实测值平均偏低8.8个茎节。表明模型模拟结果较好。     

Short-term effects of raw rice straw and its derived biochar on greenhouse gas emission in five typical soils in China

Abstract

A short-term study was conducted to investigate the greenhouse gas emissions in five typical soils under two crop residue management practices: raw rice straw (Oryza sativa L., cv) and its derived biochar application. Rice straw and its derived biochar (two biochars, produced at 350 and 500°C and referred to as BC350 and BC500, respectively) were incubated with the soils at a 5% (weight/weight) rate and under 70% water holding capacity for 28 d. Incorporation of BC500 into soils reduced carbon dioxide (CO₂) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emission in all five soils by 4?40% and 62?98%, respectively, compared to the untreated soils, whereas methane (CH₄) emission was elevated by up to about 2 times. Contrary to the biochars, direct return of the straw to soil reduced CH₄ emission by 22?69%, whereas CO₂ increased by 4 to 34 times. For N₂O emission, return of rice straw to soil reduced it by over 80% in two soils, while it increased by up to 14 times in other three soils. When all three greenhouse gases were normalized on the CO₂ basis, the global warming potential in all treatments followed the order of straw > BC350 > control > BC500 in all five soils. The results indicated that turning rice straw into biochar followed by its incorporation into soil was an effective measure for reducing soil greenhouse gas emission, and the effectiveness increased with increasing biochar production temperature, whereas direct return of straw to soil enhanced soil greenhouse gas emissions.     

水肥管理对鄱阳湖流域稻田温室气体排放的影响

为探明水肥管理模式对稻田温室气体（CH4,CO2和N2O）的影响规律,以鄱阳湖流域赣抚平原灌区稻田为研究对象,考虑间歇灌溉（W1）和淹灌（W0）2种灌溉模式,不施氮（N0）、减量施氮（N1,135 kg/hm2）和常规施氮（N2,180 kg/hm2）3种施氮水平,采用静态箱-气相色谱法测定气体排放量,结合产量计算温室气体排放强度。结果表明：稻田CH4和CO2排放通量全天内表现为单峰模式,CH4日排放峰值在14:00-15:00,CO2排放峰值提前约1～2 h,而N2O排放通量全天内则表现为上午、傍晚和深夜的三峰模式。08:00-11:00内3种气体校正系数和综合值均比较接近1,是进行田间观测的最佳时段。稻田CH4排放通量在生育前期迅速增长达到峰值,中后期相对平缓并伴有1～2个小峰值。间歇灌溉CH4排放通量较少。不同水肥处理下CO2排放的峰值出现次数一致,主要在分蘖前期、乳熟期和黄熟期。2种灌溉模式的CO2排放规律一致,但间歇灌溉下CO2排放量更多。稻田N2O的排放整体水平呈现较低状态,各处理的N2O排放峰值出现在抽穗开花期末。稻田温室气体排放引起的增温潜势受灌溉模式的影响极显著。与W0相比,W1在N0、N1、N2水平下分别降低增温潜势 36.1%、33.9%和23.2%（P<0.05）。地温和气温是重要的环境影响因子,CH4和CO2对地温的敏感性高于气温,9月典型日的温度敏感系数更高。W1N1处理的温室气体排放强度最低,从减排增产角度为鄱阳湖流域推荐的稻田水肥管理模式。     

Increase in soil carbon sequestration using rice husk charcoal without stimulating CH4 and N2O emissions in an Andosol paddy field in Japan

Abstract

Biochar application has been recognized as an effective option for promoting carbon (C) sequestration, but it may also affect the production and consumption of methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) in soil. A 1-year field experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of rice husk charcoal application on rice (Oryza sativa L.) productivity and the balance of greenhouse gas exchanges in an Andosol paddy field. The experiment compared the treatments of rice husk charcoal applied at 10, 20 and 40 Mg ha^?1 (RC10, RC20 and RC40, respectively), rice husk applied at 20 Mg ha^?1 (RH20), and the control (CONT). Rice straw and grain yields did not significantly differ among the treatments. The seasonal cumulative CH₄ emissions were 38–47% higher from RC10, RC20 and RC40 than from the CONT. However, the increases were not in proportion to the application rates of rice husk charcoal, and their values did not significantly differ from the CONT. On the contrary, the RH20 treatment significantly increased the cumulative CH₄ emission by 227% compared to the CONT. The N₂O emissions during the measurement were not affected by the treatments. As a result, the combined global warming potential (GWP) of CH₄ and N₂O emissions was significantly higher in RH20 than in the other treatments. There was a positive linear correlation between C storage in the top 10 cm of soil and the application rate of rice husk charcoal. The increases in soil C contents compared to the CONT corresponded to 98–149% of the C amounts added as rice husk charcoal and 41% of the C added as rice husk. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) fluxes in the off season were not significantly different among RC10, RC20, RC40 and CONT, indicating that C added as rice husk charcoal remained in the soil during the fallow period. The CO₂ equivalent balance between soil C sequestration and the combined GWP indicates that the rice husk charcoal treatments stored more C in soil than the CONT, whereas the RH20 emitted more C than the CONT. These results suggest that rice husk charcoal application will contribute to mitigating global warming without sacrificing rice yields.     

Effects of greenhouse intensive cultivation and organic amendments on greenhouse gas emission according to a soil incubation study

Soil cultivation changes and usage of agricultural wastes can have profound impacts on greenhouse gas (GHG) emission from soil. In this study, the effects of soil cultivation and organic amendment on GHG emission were investigated using aerobic incubation. Surface soil (0–20 cm) from (1) rice–legume consecutive rotation (Rice) and (2) recently (<3 years) converted from rice field to plastic-covered intensive vegetable and flower production (VegC) were collected in Kunming, P.R. China. Rose (Rosa rugosa Thunb.) residues and cattle manure were applied at 5% by weight. Results indicated that N₂O and CO₂ fluxes were significantly influenced by soil cultivation, organic amendment, incubation time and their interaction (p <0.05). Applying cattle manure increased, while rose residue decreased, cumulative N₂O emissions from soil (84 days). Rose residue application significantly increased cumulative CO₂ emissions with peak values of 6371 (Rice) and 7481 mg kg^?1 (VegC), followed by cattle manure addition figure of 2265 (VegC) and 3581 mg kg^?1 (Rice). Both were significantly higher (p <0.05) than the un-amended Control at 709 (VegC) and 904 mg kg^?1 (Rice). Our study demonstrates that a low C/N ratio in cattle manure is better than a high C/N ratio in rose residue in regard to reducing the global warming potential of agricultural soil.     

Predicting and mitigating the net greenhouse gas emissions of crop rotations in Western Europe

Nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide and methane are the main biogenic greenhouse gases (GHGs) contributing to net greenhouse gas balance of agro-ecosystems. Evaluating the impact of agriculture on climate thus requires capacity to predict the net exchanges of these gases in a systemic approach, as related to environmental conditions and crop management. Here, we used experimental data sets from intensively monitored cropping systems in France and Germany to calibrate and evaluate the ability of the biophysical crop model CERES-EGC to simulate GHG exchanges at the plot-scale. The experiments involved major crop types (maize-wheat-barley-rapeseed) on loam and rendzina soils. The model was subsequently extrapolated to predict CO₂ and N₂O fluxes over entire crop rotations. Indirect emissions (IE) arising from the production of agricultural inputs and from use of farm machinery were also added to the final greenhouse gas balance. One experimental site (involving a maize-wheat-barley-mustard rotation on a loamy soil) was a net source of GHG with a net GHG balance of 670 kg CO₂-C eq ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, of which half were due to IE and half to direct N₂O emissions. The other site (involving a rapeseed-wheat-barley rotation on a rendzina) was a net sink of GHG for −650 kg CO₂-C eq ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, mainly due to high C returns to soil from crop residues. A selection of mitigation options were tested at one experimental site, of which straw return to soils emerged as the most efficient to reduce the net GHG balance of the crop rotation, with a 35% abatement. Halving the rate of N inputs only allowed a 27% reduction in net GHG balance. Removing the organic fertilizer application led to a substantial loss of C for the entire crop rotation that was not compensated by a significant decrease of N₂O emissions due to a lower N supply in the system. Agro-ecosystem modeling and scenario analysis may therefore contribute to design productive cropping systems with low GHG emissions.     

Effects of biochar addition on greenhouse gas emissions during freeze–thaw cycles in a black soil region,Northeast China

As global warming intensifies, the soil environment in middle to high latitudes will undergo more extensive and frequent freeze–thaw cycles (FTCs), which will significantly affect the carbon and nitrogen cycles of soil ecosystems and aggravate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Biochar can increase soil organic carbon storage and mitigate climate change. To effectively control GHG emissions, soil supplemented with biochar at different application rates (0%, 2%, 4% and 6% [w/w]) under different numbers of FTCs (0, 3, 6, 9, and 12) was selected as the research object. The soil GHG emission characteristics in different experimental treatments and their relationships with soil physical and chemical properties were determined. Our results showed that N₂O and CO₂ emissions were promoted during FTCs, with values of 3.13–50.37 and 16.22–135.50 μg m⁻² h⁻¹, respectively. The order of N₂O and CO₂ emissions with respect to biochar application rate was as follows: 2% > 0% > 4% > 6%. CH₄ emissions were negative during FTCs, varying from −1.62 to −10.59 μg m⁻² h⁻¹, and negative CH₄ emissions were promoted by biochar. Correlation analysis showed that N₂O, CO₂ and CH₄ emissions were significantly correlated with pH, soil moisture and soil organic matter (SOM), total nitrogen (TN) and ${\mathrm{NH}}_4^{+}$–N contents (p < .01). The conceptual path model demonstrated that GHG emissions were significantly influenced by FTCs, moisture, SOM and biochar application rate. Our results indicate that the effects of FTCs on GHG emissions were greater than those of biochar application. Biochar application rates of 4% or 6% should be considered in the future to reduce soil GHG emissions in the black soil region of Northeast China. Our results can help provide a theoretical basis and effective strategy to reduce soil GHG emissions during FTCs in seasonally frozen regions.     

硝化和脲酶抑制剂对华北冬小麦-夏玉米轮作固碳减排效果评价

全面、准确分析重要农业管理措施对于农业固碳减排的影响特征,对于中国农业可持续发展具有重要意义。该文以华北平原冬小麦-夏玉米生产为对象,研究硝化/脲酶抑制剂对土壤温室气体(CO_2、N_2O和CH4)排放、土壤有机碳和作物产量的影响;在此基础上利用土壤碳库排放法(soil based approach,SBA)、生物量排放法(crop based approach,CBA)和土壤生物量排放法(soilcrop based approach,SCBA)3种方法对农田净温室气体效应(net greenhouse gas warming potential,NGWP)进行评价。研究发现,相比只施尿素(U)处理,尿素+硝化抑制剂(NI)、尿素+脲酶抑制剂(UI)和尿素+硝化抑制剂+脲酶抑制剂(NIUI)均能增加粮食产量和降低净温室气体排放。用SCBA方法计算得到的农田温室气体净排放的潜力最大(15 704~17 860 kg/hm~2),CBA法次之(4 195~7 107 kg/hm~2),SBA法最低(-7 304~-6 599 kg/hm2)。由于3种方法的固碳单元不一样,评估结果差异较大、一致性差。SCBA方法更适于评价强调粮食生产条件下的农田净温室气体效应。增加作物籽粒和秸秆产量,降低化肥使用和减少灌溉量是提高当前华北平原农田温室气体系统净排放潜力的主要措施。     

设施栽培番茄的氮磷钾肥料效应研究

采用"3414"肥料试验设计开展了设施栽培番茄的氮、磷、钾肥料效应研究。结果表明,在高肥力土壤上适量施用氮、磷、钾肥均可增加番茄产量,但过量施用会降低其产量;钾肥的增产作用大于磷肥,氮肥的作用较小;氮、钾肥和磷、钾肥配施可增加番茄产量,而氮、磷肥配施降低产量。氮、磷(P_2O_5)和钾(K_2O)最佳经济施肥量分别为119.0、50.4和375.6 kg/hm~2,施肥比例为1∶0.42∶3.16。不同施氮量对番茄硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐含量的影响不规律,增施磷、钾肥番茄硝酸盐含量呈先增加后减少趋势;氮、磷肥和磷、钾肥配施可降低番茄硝酸盐和亚硝酸盐含量。氮、钾肥和磷、钾肥配施提高了番茄可溶性糖含量,氮、磷肥和磷、钾肥配施降低了番茄总酸含量,氮、钾肥配施则有增加番茄总酸含量的趋势,氮、钾肥和磷、钾肥配施均可提高番茄Vc含量。氮、磷、钾肥料合理配施对番茄产量和品质的提高具有重要作用。     

双季稻减排增收的水氮优化管理模式筛选

为筛选出"低投入-低排放-高收益"的稻田水氮管理模式,该研究以汉江平原双季稻为研究对象,设计4种氮肥管理方式:1)普通尿素;2)树脂包膜控释尿素;3)普通尿素减氮20%;4)控释尿素减氮20%,和2种水分管理方式:1)常规灌溉;2)薄浅湿晒节水灌溉。采用静态箱-气相色谱法测定甲烷(CH₄)和氧化亚氮(N₂O)的排放量,应用生命周期法(Life Cycle Assessment, LCA)计算水稻生产碳足迹,基于成本收益核算分析单位水稻产量和单位净收益的碳排放强度。结果表明,控释尿素能有效提高双季稻产量,节水灌溉和减氮20%能节约投入成本,对双季稻产量存在一定负效应,但差异不显著。相比普通尿素和常规灌溉,不同水氮优化处理可不同程度降低水稻生产的碳足迹和排放强度,并有助于提高收益。其中节水灌溉搭配控释尿素减氮的综合减排效果最好,早、晚稻总减排量分别为45.8%和42.5%(P<0.05),同时全年净利润最高,达14 340元/hm²。因此,节水灌溉、控释尿素同时减氮20%的组合技术可实现稻田节本减排增收。     

施肥对板栗林土壤活性碳库和温室气体排放的影响

在浙江省临安市典型板栗林试验地,利用静态箱-气相色谱法测定了不同施肥条件下板栗林土壤CO2和N2O排放速率,同时测定了土壤水溶性有机碳（WSOC）和微生物量碳（MBC）含量。初步探讨了施肥对板栗林土壤活性碳库与温室气体排放速率的影响,以及土壤温室气体排放速率与活性碳库之间的关系。本试验设置不施肥（CK）、 无机肥（IF）、 有机肥 （OF）和有机无机混合肥（OIF,1/2无机肥和1/2有机肥）4个施肥处理。结果表明, 施肥1个月后,与不施肥（CK）处理相比,无机肥（IF）、 有机肥（OF）和有机无机混合肥（OIF）处理下土壤CO2排放速率分别增加了87%、 38%和61%, N2O排放速率分别增加了101%、 67%和95%; 而施肥6个月后,与CK处理相比,IF、 OF和OIF处理下土壤CO2 排放速率分别增加了51%、 43%和64%,N2O排放速率分别增加了21%、 29%和47%。同时,施肥显著增加板栗林土壤WSOC和MBC含量（P＜0.05）。此外,土壤CO2和N2O排放速率与WSOC含量均呈显著正相关（P0.05）,而与MBC含量没有显著的相关性。因此,施肥引起板栗林地土壤WSOC含量增加可能是导致板栗林地土壤温室气体排放增加的重要原因之一。