Perceived Constraints to Privatization of Delivery of Veterinary Services in Ghana

Ghana is on the verge of privatizing selected activities in the delivery of animal health services. However, various constraints are being encountered. The aim of this paper is to identify these constraints so as to help find solutions to them.Questionnaires were administered to veterinarians in Ghana to elicit their responses on various issues concerning privatization. A significant proportion (61%) of government veterinarians, who formed 94% of the respondents, were unwilling to go into private practice. Among the reasons given were that private practice was too risky, that farmers were unwilling or unable to pay for services, that capital to start practices was lacking and that the societal value for animals was low. Also, low livestock densities in many areas and the absence of commercial livestock farming were perceived as deterrents to the sustainability of private practice. Furthermore, the poor macroeconomic environment of high inflation, high interest rates and unstable currency discouraged investment.If privatization of veterinary services is to succeed in Ghana, these perceptions have to be addressed and solutions found, since veterinarians are the targets of the privatization process.     

Perceptions of Livestock Owners of Private Veterinary Practice in Ghana

Using the participatory appraisal approach, a study was designed to assess the perceptions of livestock owners on private delivery of veterinary services in two districts in the major livestock-producing area in Ghana. A significant proportion (74%, n = 180) were willing to patronize locally established veterinary practices. However, the respondents emphasized that the fees charged had to be reasonable and affordable. Factors identified as likely to discourage the use of the private provider included the inability of the provider to speak the local language; non-availability of credit facilities for services rendered by the provider; unreliability of personnel; poor interpersonal skills; lack of technical know-how; inability of the provider to make house calls or farm visits; and poor personal and work ethics. These findings provide information for prospective private veterinarians on the expectations of their clients and could be used in the preparation of veterinarians for private practice.     

Promotion of Private Veterinary Practice in Ghana: Perceptions of Veterinarians and Veterinary Technicians

A study was designed to identify factors perceived by veterinarians and veterinary technicians as likely to promote private veterinary practice in Ghana. The participatory appraisal approach was used. The response rates were 88% (n = 90), 100% (n = 9) and 86% (n = 200) for government field veterinarians, private veterinarians and government veterinary technicians, respectively. Significant proportions of government field veterinarians (67%, n = 79), and veterinary technicians (64%, n = 167) were willing to go into private practice if the necessary push was given. Factors perceived as likely to motivate them to go into private practice included availability of capital to cover start-up costs; provision of a vehicle; prospect of higher income; availability of loans with low interest rates; availability of credit facilities from suppliers; stable macroeconomic environment with low interest and inflation rates; high pet, poultry and livestock populations at locations earmarked for private practice; leasing of vacant government premises for use as clinic and for accommodation; and enforcement of legislation on private practice, especially that against moonlighting by government veterinarians and technicians. These should be considered and used in the promotion of private veterinary practice in Ghana.     

Financing the Delivery of Public-Sector Animal Health Services in Jamaica: Pre- and Post-Privatization

Lack of adequate financing was a major reason for the privatization of veterinary services in Jamaica in 1992. The belief was that, with privatization, funding of animal health services delivery would improve, since staff numbers and clinical activities undertaken by the Veterinary Division were reduced. However, analyses of data revealed that, in most cases, privatization neither improved nor stemmed the declines, that had started before privatization, in the measures or indicators used. It was concluded that privatization of veterinary services did not result in any appreciable improvement in the financing of the delivery of public-sector animal health services in Jamaica in the short term.     

Privatization of Veterinary Services in Developing Countries: A Review

Increasing fiscal constraints on the government, a lackadaisical performance by public sector animal health and breeding services and pressure from donor partners have prompted the governments of various developing countries to rethink the role of the public sector in the provision of veterinary services. Various countries have started to implement, or have already implemented, privatization of some veterinary services. The results are mixed. It is established that private provision alone is not optimal, and a blend of private and public sector veterinary services is required to utilize the virtues of both.The privatization process has also begun in India. Certain state governments in India are pursuing a cost recovery approach and are encouraging private practitioners to cope with the financial constraints and to deliver broad and effective animal health and breeding services. This paper considers the global aspects of the privatization of veterinary services as well as the scenario in India, so as to gain an insight into the very complex and debatable issue of privatization of veterinary services.     

Assessment of veterinary needs of ruminant livestock owners in Ghana

We assessed the needs of ruminant-livestock owners in three districts in Ghana for veterinary services, the acceptability of particular services or activities and the willingness of people to use services through public or private delivery systems. Purposive sampling was used in choosing 516, 100 and 100 ruminant-livestock owners in East Mamprusi, Savelugu-Nanton and Tamale districts, respectively, for the administration of a questionnaire. The response proportions were 87-99%. Focus-group discussions (FGDs) were done in Savelugu-Nanton and Tamale districts. Animal diseases, housing, and lack of knowledge on management practices were identified as the three most important problems in the districts. Generally, accessibility to veterinary services and drugs was not easy. Large proportions of respondents identified advice on health, bathing or spraying against ectoparasites, castration, deworming, treatment involving injectables, sale of medicines or drugs, treatment for skin diseases, vaccinations, and treatment of wounds as activities that they needed. Many used veterinary staff to meet their needs and were willing to use the services of private veterinary providers if private clinics were established in their localities.     

Current economic trends affecting the veterinary medical profession.

This article explores the economic trends affecting the future of the veterinary medical profession. Key aspects of demand and supply are considered, as are several broad-based institutional factors. Demand for veterinarians and veterinary medical services is demonstrating a definitive upward trend across the profession, led by a remarkable in-crease in consumers' willingness to spend on animal health care.Supply is also expanding through increased enrollments at colleges and schools of veterinary medicine and increased productivity and efficiency in private practice. Veterinarians' incomes are increasing, and some sectors of the profession offer outstanding financial opportunities.Provided that critical needs are met for 1) increased diversity and 2) continued improvement in the nontechnical capabilites of veterinarians, the outlook for the economic future of the veterinary medical profession is strong.     

Length of veterinary working life

Objective To estimate the time veterinary graduates spend in private practice and in veterinary work generally, and to determine what factors influence this.
Methods Questionnaires were completed in the sixth year after graduation by 119 veterinarians who had participated in this longitudinal study since starting the veterinary course, and the data were analysed using the SAS System for Windows.
Results Of those who started the veterinary course, 90% graduated, and 96% of these then entered private practice. Five years later 94% (73% in full-time equivalents) were working as veterinarians, and 64% (50% in full-time equivalents) were still in private practice in Australia. Hours, attitudes of principals and clients, and inadequate rewards were the main reasons for leaving private practice. The likelihood of being still in private practice was greater for those who had had significant responsibility for animals before they entered the course, but it was not related to geographical origin (city vs country), age at entry or gender. Women were, however, more likely than men to be working part time as veterinarians. Predictions of veterinary working life were not affected by geographical origin or by previous experience with animals or on farms, but men expected to work longer than women.
Conclusion The average veterinary career, estimated by veterinarians who graduated 5 years earlier, is 24 years in fulltime equivalents for men, and 16 years for women. Almost all (94%, representing 73% in full-time equivalents) still work as veterinarians after 5 years, most of them (76%, representing 59% in full-time equivalents) in private practice. The likelihood of remaining in private practice is related to previous responsibility for animals.     

Financing the Delivery of Animal Health Services in Developing Countries: A Case Study of Ghana

Inadequate financing for the delivery of animal health services in many developing countries has been blamed for lack of efficiency and effectiveness of veterinary services. There are no reports of how the delivery of veterinary services in Ghana is financed. The aim of this paper is to provide information on the funding of veterinary services in Ghana to help in decision making on resource allocation.Various indicators and measures were used in assessing the adequacy of financing and resource allocation from 1990 to 1995. These measures were the veterinary budget as proportions of the national budget, GDP and AGDP; the proportions of the veterinary budget allocated to salaries; the ratios of salaries to non-staff expenditure and of non-staff expenditure to veterinary livestock units and technical staff; coefficient of efficacy; and R- ratio. These generally declined or worsened over the period, deviating from recommended norms where such norms exist. This confirmed the paucity of financing and resource allocation for the delivery of veterinary services. Revenue generation from cost recovery over the 1993–95 period was a potential source of funding, exceeding 100% of non-staff expenditure for 1993 and 1994. However, the revenue generated was not channelled back to veterinary services but went to the national coffers. This served as a disincentive.There is an urgent need to review how veterinary services are financed in Ghana, if the delivery of services is to improve in efficiency and effectiveness.     

Perceived constraints to private veterinary practice in India

We used an exploratory study in two districts of West Bengal State, India to find out the constraints of private veterinary practice. Privatization of veterinary services is being seen as an alternative to government-sponsored veterinary services to livestock. In December 2000 to February 2001, 50 private veterinary practitioners were interviewed from the districts. Their opinion was that weak regulations about competition from illegal practitioners and the use of veterinary drugs, competition by animal-health technicians (who are likely to charge less than veterinarians), absence of efficient diagnostic-laboratory support, and lack of commercial livestock farming were the main constraints faced.     

Perceived importance and integration of the human-animal bond in private veterinary practice

OBJECTIVE: To determine perceptions of the human-animal bond (HAB) among veterinarians in private practice and evaluate how these veterinarians incorporate the HAB in their practices. DESIGN: Survey. SAMPLE POPULATION: 1,602 veterinarians in private practice in Washington state. PROCEDURE: Participants were contacted and asked to complete a survey. RESULTS: Response rate was 26% (415/1,602). Most respondents agreed that veterinarians will be more successful if they recognize and facilitate the HAB, that facilitating the HAB was important to their practices, that they actively evaluated the degree of bonding between clients and their animals, and that the bonding between a client and his or her animal affected the way they practiced medicine. However, > 50% of respondents did not train veterinary technicians and front office staff members in the HAB or encourage veterinary technicians or front office staff members to learn about the HAB. Fifty-one percent of respondents offered few or no HAB resources to clients. When asked to quantify the importance of 10 nontechnical skills associated with private veterinary practice, respondents ranked communication skills, ethical reasoning, and business management first, second, and third; the HAB was ranked fifth. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that for veterinarians in private practice in Washington state, there is a dichotomy between how important they consider the HAB to be in their practice and the degree to which they facilitate the HAB with regard to communication, training, and client resources. More research on the HAB is necessary to better understand what the HAB encompasses and its implications for private practitioners.     

US market for food animal veterinary medical services

American agribusiness is undergoing significant change and stress. In the future, agriculture faces continued instability and uncertainty because of ever-changing global economic conditions, rapid technological advances, increasing production efficiencies, shifts in demand for agricultural products, and a growing dependence of US producers on increasingly competitive world markets. In order to better understand changes and trends facing food animal veterinarians, the AVMA's Executive Board at its March 1986 meeting approved a proposal from the Council on Public Relations for a study of the US food animal market for veterinary medical services. The objectives of the study were to describe the current market for veterinary medical services, products, and information; determine and explain the demand for food animal veterinary services provided by private practicing veterinarians; and identify markets representing potential demand for which marketing strategies could be developed.     

The present and future veterinary practitioners in the tropics

Summary

The tropical countries’ inability to maintain veterinary services in the realm of the state as well as the improved quality of privately provided animal health services are leading to a change in the role, and type, of veterinarians in most of the tropics. Although control of epizootics diseases will continue to be important, further attention has to be given to the equally important nutritional deficiencies and management related diseases. These changes will have implications for the position of veterinarians as well as for animal health related research and training. The present overproduction of veterinarians in some tropical and subtropical countries can not be absorbed in private practice, especially in view of the continuing role of animal health technicians and lay personnel in disease control.     

Factors associated with past and potential future use of veterinarians by Ontario trout farmers

This study investigated whether certain variables were associated with Ontario trout farmers' use of the Fish Pathology Laboratory (FPL), Ontario Veterinary College, or their willingness to pay for private veterinary services. Sixty-two farmers, representing 91% of Ontario's 1990 farmed trout production, were personally interviewed. Logistic regression was used to compare the 26 farmers who had submitted fish to the FPL during the previous two years to those who had not. Submitters tended to have been fish farming for fewer years, and to produce more fish, use more workers, treat prophylactically less frequently, keep records of drug treatments, and not disinfect holding units (p<0.05). Most farmers stated they would occasionally hire a private veterinarian. Only 13 farmers anticipated hiring one more than once per year. Polychotomous regression showed that farmers who purchased, instead of hatched, their seed stock, kept records, treated therapeutically often, and used several workers would hire private veterinarians more frequently (p<0.05). Strategies are discussed by which the veterinary profession might better understand and meet the needs of the aquaculture industry.     

Clients’ perceptions of delivery of veterinary services in peri-urban Ghana

A study was designed aimed at comparing the assessment of performance of animal health care delivery systems in peri-urban Ghana by livestock and poultry keepers in 4 locations. 889 respondents were interviewed using a questionnaire. A higher proportion of respondents in Location 1 met their needs for animal health by themselves, while in Location 3 these needs were met mainly by veterinarians. The mean distances to veterinary clinics, veterinary technicians or to purchase medicine were significantly higher in Location 1. Higher proportions in 3 locations perceived effectiveness of service delivery to be good. However, equity was poor in all 4 locations. Higher proportions in Locations 2, 3 and 4 said services were unaffordable. Client needs were perceived to have been met by higher proportions in Locations 3 and 4 but not in Locations 1 and 2. Staff attitude and technical competence were good in all 4 locations. The study concluded that the differences reported in the quality of service indicators in the 4 locations were not critical enough to recommend location-specific delivery systems.     

Response of a veterinary college to career development needs identified in the KPMG LLP study and the executive summary of the Brakke study: a combined MBA/DVM program, business certificate program, and curricular modifications

In the present market, veterinarians with a strong background in career development, practice management, and business skills have a clear advantage in achieving financial success. Although there is ample evidence that the scientific and clinical skills of veterinary college graduates are high, there are also data that suggest that additional capabilities in the business realm may promote greater economic success. As noted in the KPMG executive summary, the field of veterinary medicine must make changes in its "current business practices and attitudes" to be successful in the future. Furthermore, the KPMG study found that 36% of industry employers reported that some jobs within their companies had specific job requirements that were not met by a veterinarian with only a veterinary medical degree. The areas of additional training most often cited included business, administration, personnel management, sales and marketing, and financial skills. Yet, Lewis and Klausner found that veterinarians reported challenges in the business realm, such as "how business works and how business goals are translated into action. This challenge held true for veterinarians in industry, academia, government, and private practice." The present gender trends in the field of veterinary medicine provide additional impetus to make career development and business skills training more prevalent. Presently, women comprise >65% of the veterinary student population and approximately 45% of all practicing veterinarians. In some areas of practice, the rate is much higher. For example, in 2002, women comprised 48.2% of all small animal exclusive private practitioners. Unfortunately, the KPMG study found that female veterinarians in private practice report lower self-evaluation of business management and financial skills, compared with their male cohorts. Female veterinarians in nonprivate practice report lower self-evaluation in communication, personnel management, business management, and marketing skills than that reported by males. As a result of these pressing needs, CSU CVMBS has undertaken a major initiative to improve the veterinary practice management and business skills training of veterinary students by offering a variety of options to gain this knowledge: a combined MBA/DVM degree program, a Business Certificate Program for Health Professions, and core curriculum courses. In this way, students can select the amount of focus they want to place on career development and business skills as they earn their DVM degree, to best ensure that they become successful veterinarians.     

Attitudes, procedures, and delivery of behavior services by veterinarians in small animal practice

OBJECTIVE: To survey veterinarians in small animal practice concerning their attitudes about delivery of behavior services, frequency of common behavior problems, manner in which services were provided, confidence in their clinical ability to treat these behavior problems, frequency of use of pharmacologic intervention, and number of dogs and cats euthanatized specifically because of behavior problems. DESIGN: Cross-sectional mail survey. SAMPLE POPULATION: Random sample of veterinarians in small animal practice in the United States. PROCEDURE: A self-administered mail survey was sent to a random sample of 2,000 veterinarians. Results were tabulated and statistically analyzed. RESULTS: It was estimated that approximately 224,000 dogs and cats were euthanatized annually in small animal veterinary practices in the United States because of behavior problems. Although veterinarians seemed unwilling to euthanatize animals for behavior problems solely on the basis of a client's request, many veterinarians did not routinely inquire about animal behavior and often were not confident in their clinical skills to treat behavior problems. Female veterinarians tended to be more proactive in addressing behavior problems and to have more positive attitudes than male veterinarians about the importance of animal behavior. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Efforts are needed to increase the number of veterinarians who systematically incorporate inquiries about animal behavior into routine clinical practice and to build the confidence of veterinarians for diagnosing and treating animal behavior problems.     

Factors influencing choice of veterinary service provider by pastoralist in Kenya

This study analyzed the determinants for choice of animal health providers in a semiarid pastoral area with an aim of identifying specific attributes that could be targeted for intervention to enhance pastoralist access to quality veterinary services. The data were collected through administration of semi-structured questionnaires to 350 randomly selected household heads in different locations in Narok County of Kenya. Most of these respondents had no formal education (66.9 %), and most households were headed by men (88.9 %). The men were in control of sales (84.2 %), purchases (83.7 %), and treatment of sick cattle (70.3 %), while women were responsible for milking (83.8 %). Animal health services were delivered by drug stockists (87.76 %) and government veterinarians (12.24 %). The time spent while seeking animal health services and transport cost were specific attributes with impact on the probability of choice for service providers. Although distance covered to the preferred service provider was a significant attribute, it was inversely related to the probability of choice. The other factors including herd sizes, age and sex of household head, cost incurred per visit, level of education of household head, and the number of visits did not have significant impact on choices. These findings support commercialization of veterinary services in marginalized areas where the delivery of essential animal health services such as disease control programs are often viewed as a public good. In order to enhance delivery of veterinary services in these areas, it is proposed that public and private means are investigated to support qualified veterinarians and to strengthen the activities of untrained personnel operating drug outlets.     

Reaching beyond our walls: library outreach to veterinary practitioners

The Texas A&M University Medical Sciences Library (MSL) supports lifelong learning for Texas veterinarians and College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (CVMBS) alumni through several ongoing outreach efforts. The MSL provides free document delivery and literature search services to practicing veterinarians in support of patient care. The MSL also responded to unique opportunities to expand services and increase its visibility through collaborations with the American Association of Equine Practitioners and CABI, provider of VetMed Resource. The MSL continues to explore ways to expand its mission-critical veterinary outreach work and market library services to veterinarians through participation in continuing education, regional meetings, and veterinary student instruction.     

The marketing of herd health and production management services on Dutch dairy farms: perceptions of dairy farmers and their veterinary surgeons

A questionnaire-based survey on veterinary herd health and production management services was conducted on 194 specialist dairy veterinarians and 466 dairy farmers. The farmers were randomly selected from greater than 6,000 farmer clients of the surveyed veterinarians. This paper reports these survey findings and the findings of an earlier survey conducted among the veterinarians. The survey included questions on the attributes of the service itself, the practitioners delivering the service, reasons for participation and the expected future of herd health and production management services. Reasons farmers participated in herd health and production management programmes included; access to routine screening of their herd; increasing profits; and receiving regular veterinary advice or solutions to remedy existing problems. Advantages of participation named included: good management support; higher profits; structural solutions to problems; and being better informed. Differences between farming styles were observed, pointing to the different needs and goals of farming styles. Farmers cited high costs and the time investment required as major disadvantages. The proportion of farmers citing these reasons was lower than expected by the veterinarians. In the future, preventive healthcare will be the main reason of farmers to participate. Farmers who are not using the service can potentially be encouraged to engage the services after gaining increased insight into the herd health and management service structure, the planning of activities, the cost-benefit of the service, veterinary surgeons being more co-operative with other farm advisors and veterinarians being more willing to pay attention to quality issues on the dairy farm.